Draft:Coastline of Pakistan

Coastline lies in South of Pakistan.

Pakistan is located in South Asia. The coastline of Pakistan extends approximately 1,046 kilometers along the country's southern border with the Arabian Sea, a critical maritime frontier of significant strategic and economic value. It is administratively divided between two provinces: the Sindh coast in the east, dominated by the deltaic plains of the Indus River, and the Makran coast of Balochistan in the west. Major port cities such as Karachi and Gwadar anchor this coastline, serving as vital hubs for national and regional trade, fisheries, and industrial activity. Ecologically, the coast hosts extensive arid mangrove forests, which are among the world's largest, providing essential services such as carbon sequestration, storm protection, and habitat for marine life. However, this coastal zone faces mounting environmental pressures from climate change, unsustainable development, and pollution, which threaten both its delicate ecosystems and the livelihoods of coastal communities.^[1][2][3]

History

The coastline of Pakistan has a rich and layered history shaped by "natural forces, ancient trade, colonial geopolitics, and modern nation-building". The geological foundation was set millions of years ago by tectonic activity, particularly along the Makran coast where the Arabian plate subducts beneath the Eurasian plate, creating the rugged Makran Coastal Range.^[4] Human history along this coast dates to antiquity, with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) flourishing at the mouth of the Indus River, using the coast for maritime trade with Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf.^[5] The coast has been known to various historical identities: to the Greeks as the land of Ichthyophagi (fish-eaters), to Arab geographers as the coast of Mansura and Mekran, and to later Europeans as a remote and challenging shore.^[6] In the 18th and 19th centuries, strategic interest in the coast intensified. The strategic port of Gwadar was an Omani possession from 1783 until Pakistan's purchase of the enclave in 1958, a key move to secure a western maritime outlet.^[7] The British era saw the development of Karachi as a major port for the Raj, but the borders of western Balochistan were formalized only in the late 19th century through agreements like the Goldsmid Line (1871).^[8] Since Pakistan's independence in 1947, the coastline's history has been defined by national integration—with the accession of the Princely State of Makran in 1948—and ambitious development, most notably through the construction of Port Qasim in the 1970s and the transformation of Gwadar into a deep-water port under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) in the 21st century.^[9] Environmental history has also become central, with the degradation of the Indus Delta due to upstream damming and climate change emerging as a critical modern challenge.^[10]

The Sindh Coast

Indus River Delta along Sindh coast.

The Sindh coast, extending approximately 350 kilometers from the Indian border near the Sir Creek to the Hub River west of Karachi, forms the eastern segment of Pakistan's maritime boundary.^[11] It is a low-lying, sedimentary coast dominated by the vast Indus River Delta, one of the world's largest arid-climate deltas, which has prograded into the Arabian Sea over millennia.^[12] The coastline is characterized by a series of creeks, mudflats, salt marshes, and mangrove forests, creating a complex and dynamic interface between riverine and marine systems.^[13] A prominent feature is the Karachi coast, which transitions from the deltaic environment to include sandy beaches such as Clifton and Sandspit, and is fronted by Manora Island and the adjoining Karachi Harbour.^[14] Key geographic landmarks include Keti Bunder and Shah Bunder within the active delta, and the seasonal Khobar Creek. The region's physiography makes it highly vulnerable to coastal erosion, sea-level rise, and saline intrusion, which are actively reshaping its contours.^[15]

Karachi coast

A view of Churna Island, Karachi Coast.

The Karachi area coast, forming the central maritime zone of Pakistan, encompasses the diverse shoreline of the nation's largest metropolis and primary port city. Its functional and geographic core is defined by two major seaports and a sheltered natural harbour. The historic Port of Karachi, a major economic hub, is protected by the Manora peninsula, a geographic feature that provides a crucial natural breakwater. The adjacent Port Qasim, located to the east on the Phitti Creek, handles a significant majority of Pakistan's sea trade, serving as a vital conduit for energy imports and containerized cargo.^[16][17] The city's coastline features a mixture of urban sandy beaches, most notably Clifton Beach and Sandspit Beach, and rocky outcrops such as the western headland of Cape Monze. The area's offshore geography includes significant islands like Bundal Island and Buddo Island within the Indus Delta system. However, this vital urban coastline faces severe environmental degradation. Key challenges include industrial pollution, with heavy metal contamination from sources like the Gadani ship-breaking yard affecting marine life, and physical transformation from extensive land reclamation projects for urban expansion.^[18][19] This combination of high economic utility and acute ecological pressure defines the complex character of the Karachi coastal area.

The Balochistan Coast

The Balochistan coast forms the western and southern maritime border of Pakistan's largest province, running for approximately 760 kilometers along the Arabian Sea, from the Iranian border in the west to the mouth of the Hub River near Karachi in the east.^[20] This coastline, part of the Makran region, is characterized by a narrow, arid coastal plain dominated by mud flats and sandstone ridges, backed by the steep escarpment of the Makran Coast Range and Central Makran Range.^[21] Its strategic importance is anchored by the deep-water Gwadar Port, a central node in the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and envisioned as a future commercial and energy hub.^[22] Other key coastal settlements include the fishing ports of Pasni, Jiwani, and Somiani. Notable natural features include the pristine Kund Malir Beach within Hingol National Park and Astola Island (Jezira Haft Talar), Pakistan's largest offshore island, both significant for biodiversity and emerging tourism.^[23]

Hingol National Park and mangroves

Main article: Hingol National Park

A view of Hingol National Park.

A view of mangroves along Pakistan coast.

Hingol National Park, spanning approximately 6,100 square kilometers, is Pakistan's largest national park, distinguished by its unique integration of terrestrial and coastal-marine ecosystems along the Makran coast.^[24] Its coastline, where the Hingol River meets the Arabian Sea, hosts vital estuarine wetlands and mangrove habitats.^[25] These coastal mangroves, primarily of the species Avicennia marina, form a critical ecological buffer and provide essential breeding and feeding grounds for diverse fauna, including marsh crocodiles, over 10,000 migratory waterbirds, and numerous fish species.^[26] The park's protected marine zone also serves as a habitat for endangered green sea turtles and the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, highlighting the significant biodiversity sustained by this interconnected river, mangrove, and sea system.^[27]

Gwadar Coast

Main article: Gwadar Port

A view of Gwadar city along the Makran coast.

The Gwadar coast constitutes the westernmost segment of Pakistan's Makran coast in Balochistan, centered on the deep-sea Gwadar Bay. Historically an overseas possession of the Sultanate of Oman, the territory was purchased by Pakistan in 1958 to secure a strategic maritime outlet.^[28] Its defining modern feature is the Gwadar Port, developed as the flagship project of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), envisioned as a vital transit and energy hub connecting Western China to the Arabian Sea.^[29] The surrounding semi-arid coastline features sandy beaches and mudflats that support local fishing, but rapid port-led development has raised significant environmental and social concerns, including coastal erosion, salinization of groundwater, and disputes over land rights and the displacement of traditional fishing communities.^[30][31]

Minor gulfs and other features

Pakistan's coastline along the Arabian Sea is notably straight, with its most significant minor gulf, the Gulf of Kutch (also spelled Kachchh), forming its southeastern maritime boundary with India rather than a feature along its own shore.^[32] This broad, shallow inlet of the Arabian Sea extends eastward for approximately 180 kilometers (110 miles) into the Indian state of Gujarat, with its western edge bordering the Pakistani province of Sindh. At its easternmost extent, the Gulf leads into the Rann of Kutch, a vast seasonal salt marsh that spans the border between Gujarat and Pakistan's Sindh province.^[33] This unique, intermittently flooded desert and grassland ecosystem is the only large flooded grasslands zone in the Indomalayan realm and serves as a critical habitat for wildlife, including the endangered Indian wild ass.^[34] While the Pakistani coastline itself lacks major indentations, the adjacent Gulf of Kutch and Rann of Kutch system represents a defining regional geographic feature of the northeastern Arabian Sea.

Flora and Fauna

The coastline of Pakistan supports a rich and unique assemblage of flora and fauna adapted to its arid subtropical climate. The dominant botanical feature is the Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea mangroves, a globally significant ecoregion.^[35] Over 95% of Pakistan's mangroves are the resilient grey mangrove (Avicennia marina), with smaller populations of the red mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata) and the white mangrove (Aegiceras corniculatum) found in more protected creeks.^[36] These mangroves are not mere plants; they form the foundational ecosystem, creating a "nursery of the sea" by stabilizing coastlines, filtering pollutants, and providing critical breeding and feeding grounds for an immense variety of marine and terrestrial life.^[37]

Marine and Avian Fauna

The marine biodiversity is substantial. The waters off the coast are home to over 1,000 species of fish, including commercially vital species like pomfrets, groupers, snappers, mackerels, and the famous Hilsa shad (Tenualosa ilisha), which migrates up the Indus to spawn.^[38] The coastline is also of paramount importance for marine reptiles. The beaches of Sindh (Hawke's Bay, Sandspit) and Balochistan (Astola Island, Ormara, Jiwani) serve as critical nesting sites for five species of globally threatened sea turtles: the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), the loggerhead (Caretta caretta), the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), and the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea).^[39] Furthermore, the endangered Indus River dolphin (Platanista minor) is found in the freshwater channels of the delta.^[40] Avian life is prolific, especially in the wetland habitats of the Indus Delta and the lagoons of Balochistan. These areas provide crucial stopover and wintering grounds for hundreds of thousands of migratory waterbirds along the Central Asian Flyway, including large flocks of greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus), various species of ducks, waders, gulls, terns, and the endemic Sykes's nightjar (Caprimulgus mahrattensis) in drier coastal areas.^[41]

Threats and Conservation Status

This biodiversity faces severe and escalating threats. The single greatest pressure on the Indus Delta ecosystem is the drastic reduction of freshwater and silt flow from the Indus River due to upstream dams and diversions.^[42] This has led to large-scale mangrove deforestation, coastal erosion, and seawater intrusion, which degrades habitat and agricultural land.^[43] Additional pervasive threats include pollution from industrial effluent, agricultural runoff, and plastic waste; overfishing and the use of destructive gear; and habitat destruction from port development, land reclamation, and unregulated tourism.^[44] As a result, numerous key species are classified as threatened by the IUCN Red List: the Indus River dolphin is Endangered, all five sea turtle species are Endangered or Critically Endangered, and the mangrove ecosystem itself is considered Vulnerable.^[45] Conservation efforts, led by government agencies like the Sindh and Balochistan Forests & Wildlife Departments alongside international organizations such as IUCN and WWF, focus on mangrove replantation, establishing protected areas (like the Astola Island Marine Protected Area), community-based management, and enforcing fishing bans during turtle nesting seasons.^[46]

Notable islands

Main article: List of islands of Pakistan

The islands of Pakistan, scattered along the Arabian Sea coast and within its river systems, are geographically and functionally diverse.^[47] Offshore, the country's largest island is Astola Island (Jezira Haft Talar), a rocky, uninhabited sanctuary in the Makran region that serves as a vital nesting ground for endangered green sea turtles and is on the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List.^[48] Near the coast of Karachi, the sedimentary formations of Bundal Island and Buddo Island in the Indus River Delta are focal points of ecological and legal disputes due to large-scale real estate development plans.^[49] Within Karachi Harbour itself, historically significant islands like Manora—now a peninsula housing a major naval base—and the traditional fishing communities on Baba and Bhit Islands reflect the human dimension of the coastal landscape.^[50][51] The Makran coast also features smaller rocky outcrops such as Churna Island, popular for diving.^[52] Inland, the Indus River and other waterways create shifting alluvial islands used for seasonal agriculture. Collectively, these islands are critical for biodiversity, coastal defense, and local livelihoods, but face significant threats from environmental degradation, climate change, and unregulated development.^[53]

Rivers along the coastline

The rivers that discharge into the Arabian Sea along the coast of Pakistan form two distinct hydrological systems of paramount ecological and economic importance. The Indus River, one of the world's great rivers, dominates the eastern shoreline, delivering the freshwater and sediment that sustain the vast Indus River Delta and its globally significant arid mangrove forests. In stark contrast, the western Makran coast of Balochistan is drained by a series of parallel, westward-flowing seasonal rivers, including the Hingol, Dasht, and Shadi Kaur. These ephemeral watercourses, born in the arid Makran and Central Makran Ranges, are vital for local agriculture and groundwater recharge, creating pockets of biodiversity in their estuaries before reaching the sea.

The Indus River

Main article: Indus River

The Indus River is the principal river system of Pakistan and one of the longest rivers in Asia, flowing approximately 3,180 kilometers from its source near Lake Mansarovar in the Tibetan Plateau before emptying into the Arabian Sea southeast of Karachi.^[54] Its mouth forms the Indus River Delta, a vast and dynamic region spanning the coast of the Sindh province, which includes one of the world's largest arid mangrove ecosystems. Historically, the delta was a fertile and growing landform; however, the construction of major dams and barrages, most notably the Tarbela and Mangla Dams for irrigation and hydropower, has drastically reduced the flow of freshwater and sediment to the coast by an estimated 80-90%.^[55] This reduction has triggered severe coastal erosion, seawater intrusion, and a decline in mangrove cover, threatening the ecology of the delta and the livelihoods of communities dependent on fishing and agriculture.^[56]

The Hingol River

Main article: Hingol River

The Hingol River is the longest river in Balochistan, stretching approximately 563 kilometers from its source in the Makran Range to its estuary in the Arabian Sea within Hingol National Park. It is a seasonal river, typically dry for much of the year but prone to powerful flash floods during the monsoon season.^[57] Its estuary, where freshwater meets the sea, creates vital wetlands and mangrove habitats that support significant biodiversity, including the Marsh crocodile, numerous species of migratory birds, and fish. The river's flow is essential for maintaining the groundwater levels in its basin and supporting the scattered human settlements and date palm orchards along its course.^[58] The scenic lower valley of the Hingol, marked by dramatic mud-rock formations and the pilgrimage site of Hinglaj Mata, is a key feature of Hingol National Park.

The Dasht River

The Dasht River flows westward across the Kech Valley in southern Balochistan before forming a wide, shallow delta near the port town of Jiwani on the Arabian Sea. It is a significant seasonal river for the region, crucial for agriculture and groundwater recharge in the otherwise arid Makran coast.^[59] The river's delta and the adjacent Jiwani Coastal Wetlands are recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA), providing habitat for thousands of migratory waterfowl, including flamingos, ducks, and waders. Like other rivers in Makran, the Dasht's flow is highly variable, and its basin faces challenges from unsustainable water extraction and the impacts of climate change on monsoon patterns.^[60]

The Shadi Kaur (Shadi Kor)

The Shadi Kaur (also known as Shadi Kor) is a smaller, ephemeral river in the Gwadar District of Balochistan. It originates in the surrounding hills and flows into the Arabian Sea near Pasni. The river's flow is entirely dependent on sporadic rainfall, and it remains dry for most of the year. However, during rare heavy rain events, it can experience sudden and intense flash floods, which pose a risk to infrastructure and settlements in its path. The estuary of the Shadi Kaur and its associated coastal strip support limited but locally important mangrove patches and serve as a habitat for marine life and birds. Its basin is part of the fragile coastal ecosystem of the Makran region.^[61]

Other Seasonal Rivers of Makran

A network of other seasonal streams drains the arid Makran Coast Range into the Arabian Sea. These include the Nal River, Kech River, and the Gwadar River, which flows near the port city. These watercourses are characterized by their intermittent flow, carrying water only after significant rainfall in the surrounding mountains. They play a critical role in recharging local aquifers and supporting pockets of agriculture in their valleys, primarily through the cultivation of date palms. Their estuaries often form small, isolated mangrove stands and mudflats, contributing to the coastal biodiversity of an otherwise harsh desert coastline.

Notable seaports

The coastline of Pakistan hosts a diverse network of seaports that underpin the nation's economy and strategic posture. This maritime infrastructure comprises three major international commercial ports—Karachi, Port Qasim, and Gwadar—which serve as the primary gateways for global trade and are critical to energy imports and the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). Alongside these, a series of fishing harbours, such as Karachi Fish Harbour, Pasni, and Jiwani, support the livelihoods of coastal communities and the national seafood industry. The coast also features strategically vital naval bases at Karachi and Ormara, the vast Gadani Ship Breaking Yard, and several historic or minor ports like Keti Bandar and Sonmiani. Collectively, these facilities manage over 95% of Pakistan's external trade by volume and define its maritime connectivity.

Karachi Port

Main article: Karachi Port

The Port of Karachi is Pakistan's busiest and oldest major seaport, handling approximately 60% of the country's seaborne cargo.^[62] Located on the Arabian Sea in a natural harbour protected by Manora Island, it serves as the principal gateway for containerized, dry bulk, and liquid bulk trade. The port is managed by the federal Karachi Port Trust (KPT) and has undergone several expansion projects to maintain its capacity, including the development of a Deep Water Container Terminal.^[63]

Port Qasim

Main article: Port Qasim

Port Muhammad Bin Qasim, commonly called Port Qasim, is Pakistan's second-largest port and a key industrial hub.^[64] Located 35 kilometers east of Karachi, it is a purpose-built, deep-water port that handles about 35% of the national cargo, specializing in Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), coal, iron ore, and chemicals. It is integral to Pakistan's energy supply chain, featuring dedicated terminals for LNG and coal-fired power plants, and is managed by the Port Qasim Authority (PQA).^[65]

Gwadar Port

Main article: Gwadar Port

Gwadar Port is a strategic deep-sea port on the Makran coast of Balochistan, developed as the flagship project of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).^[66] It is envisioned as a future transshipment hub and trade gateway for western China and Central Asia. Operated under a long-term concession, by the China Overseas Port Holding Company (COPHC), the port is central to plans for an adjacent Gwadar Free Zone and related infrastructure aimed at stimulating economic activity in the region.^[67]

Karachi Fish Harbour

The Karachi Fish Harbour is the largest fish harbor in Pakistan and a primary hub for the national seafood industry.^[68] Located within the Karachi Port complex, it is managed by the Karachi Fisheries Harbour Authority (KFHA) and includes extensive facilities for auctioning, processing, cold storage, and exporting marine catch. It serves as the main landing point for hundreds of fishing vessels from along the coast.^[69]

Pasni Fishing Harbour

Pasni is a major fishing port and commercial town on the Balochistan coast. Its fishing harbor is a critical economic center for the Makran region, supporting thousands of local fishermen.^[70] In addition to fisheries, Pasni serves as a minor port for general cargo and houses facilities for the Pakistan Navy, functioning as an auxiliary naval base.^[71]

Ormara Port

Ormara is a natural deep-water harbour on the Balochistan coast between Karachi and Gwadar. Its primary strategic role is as the Jinnah Naval Base, a major forward operating base for the Pakistan Navy.^[72] The town also sustains a local fishing community, with its sheltered bay providing safe anchorage for fishing vessels.

Jiwani Fishing Harbour

Jiwani is a coastal town and fishing port in the far southwest of Balochistan, near the Iranian border. Its harbor supports the local fishing economy.^[73] Due to its strategic location at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, it hosts a small Pakistan Navy detachment and an airbase, underscoring its military significance.^[74]

Keti Bandar

Keti Bandar is a historic port town in the Indus River Delta of Sindh. Once a thriving commercial port, its prominence declined due to silting and reduced freshwater flow from the Indus River.^[75] Today, it functions primarily as a fishing harbor and is frequently cited in government and feasibility studies as a proposed site for a future deep-sea port to alleviate pressure on Karachi.^[76]

Gadani Ship Breaking Yard

The Gadani Ship Breaking Yard, located 50 kilometers northwest of Karachi, is one of the world's largest centers for ship demolition.^[77] Stretched along a 10-kilometer beachfront, the yard provides a significant source of scrap steel for Pakistan's industry but is also notorious for hazardous working conditions and severe environmental pollution from toxic materials.^[78]

Other Minor Ports

Other notable ports include Somiani (or Sonmiani) in Lasbela District, which serves as a fishing harbor and has been a proposed site for a commercial port.^[79] Small jetties and harbors along the Indus Delta creeks, such as at Mirpur Sakro and Shah Bandar, facilitate local trade and artisanal fishing.

Notable Beaches

Main article: List of beaches in Pakistan

The coastline of Pakistan features a diverse array of beaches along the Arabian Sea, ranging from popular urban shores to remote, pristine strands. The most frequented are the urban beaches near Karachi, including Clifton Beach (Seaview) and Sandspit Beach, which attract millions of visitors annually for recreation.^[80] Beyond the city, the coastline of Balochistan offers more isolated and dramatic scenery. Kund Malir Beach, situated within Hingol National Park, is renowned for its golden sands backed by rugged mud mountains,^[81] while the Ormara Turtle Beaches serve as vital nesting grounds for endangered green and olive ridley sea turtles.^[82] Other significant beaches include Hawksbay and the rocky Paradise Point near Karachi, as well as the sandy shores of Gwadar, which are central to the port city's tourism potential.^[83] These coastal areas face significant environmental pressures from pollution, unplanned development, and the impacts of climate change.^[84]

Pakistan Naval Bases

Pakistan's naval infrastructure is concentrated along the coastlines of Sindh and Balochistan provinces, with a clear strategic focus on defending maritime frontiers and securing critical sea lanes in the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman.^[85] The force's largest and primary operational hub is the PN Dockyard in Karachi, which serves as the main naval base and fleet headquarters for the Pakistan Navy. In a significant effort to diversify its footprint and extend its strategic reach along the Makran Coast, the Navy established the Jinnah Naval Base in Ormara, Balochistan, which is now its second-largest facility.^[86] This dispersed network includes key naval air stations such as PNS Mehran in Karachi and forward stations like PNS Ahsan in Gwadar, which support maritime patrol and aviation operations.^[87] Alongside these operational bases, the Navy maintains a comprehensive support infrastructure. This encompasses major training establishments like the Pakistan Naval Academy (PNS Rahbar), specialist schools for diving and marines (PNS Himalaya and PNS Qasim), and primary industrial facilities such as the Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works (KSEW).^[88] This integrated system of bases, air stations, training centers, and industrial support underpins the Pakistan Navy's capability to perform its national defense duties and contribute to regional maritime security.

Sir Creek dispute

Main article: Sir Creek

A map displaying the disputed Sir Creek region.

The Sir Creek dispute is a long-standing territorial and maritime boundary conflict between India and Pakistan, centering on a 96-kilometer tidal estuary in the marshy Indus River Delta separating India's Gujarat state from Pakistan's Sindh province. The core disagreement stems from conflicting interpretations of historical documents: Pakistan claims the entire creek based on a 1914 resolution it argues sets the boundary at the creek's eastern bank, while India invokes the Thalweg principle of international law and a 1925 map to assert the border lies mid-channel. Beyond territorial sovereignty, the dispute's resolution is critical for delimiting the maritime Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the Arabian Sea, an area believed to hold hydrocarbon resources and rich fishing grounds. The unresolved status has led to frequent arrests of fishermen from both nations and contributes to regional tensions. The strategic location, just 200 km from Karachi, adds to its military significance, and the issue remains a key point of contention despite several rounds of bilateral negotiations.^[89][90][91]

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