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Frying

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For other uses of "fry" or "frying", see Fry.
Slices of plantain being fried in a wide pan outside in bubbling oil
Fried plantain

Frying is the cooking of food in oil or fat.[a][2] Similar to sautéing, pan-fried foods are generally turned over once or twice during cooking to ensure that the food is evenly cooked, using tongs or a spatula, whereas sautéed foods are cooked by "tossing in the pan".[3] A large variety of foods may be fried. Frying is a dehydration process which involves the transfer of mass and heat. Different chemical changes take place during the frying process such as protein denaturation, starch gelatinization, surface browning, rapid water evaporation and oil absorption.[4]

History

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Frying is believed to have first appeared in Ancient Egyptian cuisine during the Old Kingdom, around 2500 BC.[5]

There is evidence of frying dating to c. 1500 BC in India, when ghee was used to fry appam.[6] In China, the Book of Rites describes a Zhou dynasty-era recipe for fried rice and fat from a wolf's breast. It is hypothesised that stir frying emerged in field kitchens in the late Han dynasty, but evaded the literary record due to its informal nature.[5] In Leviticus, a distinction is made between baked bread and bread fried in a pan with oil.[7]

In Europe, frying pans begin appearing in Norwegian grave goods in the seventh century.[8] Frying is mentioned in the Wife of Bath's Tale and a reference is made to fried eggs in Don Quixote in the 14th and 17th centuries respectively.[7]

Process

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Food in contact with oil heated to 160–180 °C (320–356 °F) undergoes mass and heat transfer, causing cell walls to fracture due to surface water reaching boiling point and beginning to vaporise. These fractures enable the food to absorb oil. A crust forms which causes dehydration of the food while protecting its centre against oil absorption, leaving the centre moist and the exterior dry and crispy. Once a crust has formed, the centre heats up, proteins denature, and starch gelatinises. Frying is complete when all water content in the food vaporises; this is visible when the oil stops bubbling.[9] When a fried food reduces in temperature below 100 °C (212 °F), water vapour inside condenses and internal pressure drops, causing oil absorption into the food via a vacuum effect.[1]

15% of battered chicken or fish’s final weight is absorbed frying oil, compared to 20% when breaded. Doughnuts’ final weight is between 15–20% frying oil, and this figure increases to up to 35–40% for potato chips.[1]

Techniques

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Deep frying

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Rings of dough floating in bubbling oil, varying in colour from cream to dark brown
Smultring being deep fried
Main article: Deep frying

In deep frying, food is submerged in hot oil or fat so that all sides are cooked simultaneously.[10] A deep fryer or chip pan may be used, or, in an industrial frying operation, a pressure fryer or vacuum fryer. One method for preparing food for deep frying involves battering or breading, which adds colour and crunch to its surface.[10] French fries, doughnuts, cong you bing, and tempura are common deep-fried foods.[11][12]

Health

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A 2021 meta-analysis found that the highest category of fried food consumption compared to the lowest is associated with a 3% increase in the risk of all-cause mortality, as well as with a 2% increase in the risk of cardiovascular mortality.[13] Compared to participants with a low intake, those who ate the most fried food had a 37% increased risk of heart failure, a 28% increased risk of major cardiovascular events, and a 22% increased risk of coronary heart disease.[13] The risk of stroke, heart failure, and heart attack modestly increased with the increase of weekly servings of fried food.[13] The study concluded that fried food consumption may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and presents a linear dose-response relation.[13] The researchers theorized the main reasons behind these associations are the high trans fat and calorie content of fried foods and their pro-inflammatory nature.[13] It was also noted that eating hyperpalatable crisp-fried foods may entice people to engage in routine overeating.[13]

A 2023 meta-analysis found that fried food consumption is linked to a 52% increase in the risk of stomach cancer.[14] Fried food intake is also associated with prehypertension,[15] hypertension[16][17][15][18] and obesity.[18][19]

Images

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Chemically, oils and fats are the same, differing only in melting point: oils are liquid at room temperature and fats are solid.[1]

References

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  1. ^ a b c Rosseli, J. B. (30 August 1998). "Industrial Frying Process". Grasas y Aceites. 49 (3–4). doi:10.3989/gya.1998.v49.i3-4.729. Retrieved 3 April 2026.
  2. ^ Montagné, Prosper, ed. (1977). The New Larousse Gastronomique: The Encyclopedia of Food, Wine & Cookery. Crown. pp. 299, 307. ISBN 0517531372.
  3. ^ Peterson, James (April 2003). Essentials of Cooking. Artisan Books. ISBN 978-1-57965-236-4.
  4. ^ Onigbogi, Isaac O; Olatunji, T.O; Nupo, S.S; Bello, T.K (December 2011). "Effect of Repeated Frying Operations on the Quality Attributes of Frying Oil and Acceptability of Sweet Potato Chips". Journal of Sciences and Multidisciplinary Research. 3: 10 – via ResearchGate.
  5. ^ a b Tannahill, Reay. (1995). Food in History. Three Rivers Press.
  6. ^ Prakash, Om (1961). Food and Drinks In Ancient India: From Earliest Times To B.c. 1200 A.d. Munshi Ram Manohar Lal. p. 250. Retrieved 3 April 2026.
  7. ^ a b Morton, I. D. (30 August 1998). "Geography and history of the frying process". Grasas y Aceitas. 49 (3–4). doi:10.3989/gya.1998.v49.i3-4.745. Retrieved 12 April 2026.
  8. ^ Bukkemoen, Grethe Bjørkan (2017). The Agrarian Life of the North 2000 BC–AD 1000: Studies in Rural Settlement and Farming in Norway. pp. 117–132. Retrieved 3 April 2026.
  9. ^ Valle, Consuelo; Echeverría, Francisca; Chávez, Vilma; Valenzuela, Rodrigo; Bustamante, Andrés. "Deep-frying impact on food and oil chemical composition: Strategies to reduce oil absorption in the final product". Food Safety and Health. 2 (4): 414–428. doi:10.1002/fsh3.12056. Retrieved 3 April 2026.
  10. ^ a b Stevenson, Danny (1996). Food Preparation and Cooking: Cookery Units (2nd ed.). Nelson Thornes Ltd. p. 18. ISBN 0 7487 2566 0. Retrieved 4 May 2026.
  11. ^ Taylor, John Martin (2013). Deep-Fried Goodness. Workman Publishing Company. ISBN 9780761179733.
  12. ^ Y. W. Ang, Catharina; Liu, KeShun; Huang, Yao-Wen (1999). Asian Foods: Science and Technology. Technomic Publishing Company, Inc. p. 94. ISBN 1-56676-736-9. Retrieved 4 May 2026.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Qin P, Zhang M, Han M, Liu D, Luo X, Xu L, Zeng Y, Chen Q, Wang T, Chen X, Zhou Q, Li Q, Qie R, Wu X, Li Y, Zhang Y, Wu Y, Hu D, Hu F (October 2021). "Fried-food consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis of observational studies". Heart. 107 (19): 1567–1575. doi:10.1136/heartjnl-2020-317883. PMID 33468573.
  14. ^ Zhang T, Song SS, Liu M, Park S (June 2023). "Association of Fried Food Intake with Gastric Cancer Risk: A Systemic Review and Meta-Analysis of Case-Control Studies". Nutrients. 15 (13): 2982. doi:10.3390/nu15132982. PMC 10347084. PMID 37447308.
  15. ^ a b Provido SM, Abris GP, Hong S, Yu SH, Lee CB, Lee JE (February 2020). "Association of fried food intake with prehypertension and hypertension: the Filipino women's diet and health study". Nutr Res Pract. 14 (1): 76–84. doi:10.4162/nrp.2020.14.1.76. PMC 6997139. PMID 32042377.
  16. ^ Sayon-Orea C, Bes-Rastrollo M, Gea A, Zazpe I, Basterra-Gortari FJ, Martinez-Gonzalez MA (September 2014). "Reported fried food consumption and the incidence of hypertension in a Mediterranean cohort: the SUN (Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra) project". Br J Nutr. 112 (6): 984–91. doi:10.1017/S0007114514001755. PMID 25201306.
  17. ^ Kang Y, Kim J (January 2016). "Association between fried food consumption and hypertension in Korean adults". Br J Nutr. 115 (1): 87–94. doi:10.1017/S000711451500402X. PMID 26449129.
  18. ^ a b Qin P, Liu D, Wu X, Zeng Y, Sun X, Zhang Y, Li Y, Wu Y, Han M, Qie R, Huang S, Zhao Y, Feng Y, Yang X, Liu Y, Li H, Zhang M, Hu D, Hu F (2022). "Fried-food consumption and risk of overweight/obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and hypertension in adults: a meta-analysis of observational studies". Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 62 (24): 6809–6820. doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1906626. PMID 33825582.
  19. ^ Guallar-Castillón P, Rodríguez-Artalejo F, Fornés NS, Banegas JR, Etxezarreta PA, Ardanaz E, Barricarte A, Chirlaque MD, Iraeta MD, Larrañaga NL, Losada A, Mendez M, Martínez C, Quirós JR, Navarro C, Jakszyn P, Sánchez MJ, Tormo MJ, González CA (July 2007). "Intake of fried foods is associated with obesity in the cohort of Spanish adults from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition". Am J Clin Nutr. 86 (1): 198–205. doi:10.1093/ajcn/86.1.198. PMID 17616781.
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