প্ৰধান ছুন্নী আইন (মাজহাব) হ’ল হানাফি, মালিকি, শ্বাফী আৰু হাম্বলি মাজহাব।[48] নৱম আৰু দশম শতিকাত এইবোৰৰ উত্থান ঘটিছিল আৰু দ্বাদশ শতিকাৰ ভিতৰত প্ৰায় সকলো ন্যায়িকে এক বিশেষ মাজহাবৰ লগত মিলি গৈছিল।[83] এই চাৰিখন মাজহাবে ইজনে সিজনৰ বৈধতাক স্বীকাৰ কৰে আৰু ইহঁতে শতিকাজুৰি আইনী বিতৰ্কত পাৰস্পৰিক ক্ৰিয়া-কলাপ কৰি আহিছে।[83][48] Rulings of these schools are followed across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world.[83][48] For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in Lower Egypt, East Africa, and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia.[83][48][5] The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni madhhabs.[6] The Zahiri school, which is commonly identified as extinct, continues to exert influence over legal thought.[6][48][83] The development of Shia legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in formation of the Twelver, Zaidi and Ismaili madhhabs, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools.[6][5] The Ibadi legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman.[48]
The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system.[83] Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system.[83] State law codification commonly utilized the methods of takhayyur (selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and talfiq (combining parts of different rulings on the same question).[83] Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ulema as interpreters of the resulting laws.[83] Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence.[83] The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and hadith, has inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation by the Salafi and Wahhabi movements.[83] Other currents, such as networks of Indonesian ulema and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim-minority countries, have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law without focusing on traditions of a particular madhhab.[83]
↑Twelver Shia jurisprudence does not recognize the use of qiyas, but relies on reason (ʿaql) in their place. [11][12]
↑"...the essential features of old Muhammadan jurisprudence, such as the idea of the 'living tradition' of the ancient schools of law [local practices of early Muslim communities]; a body of common doctrine expressing the earliest effort to systematize; legal maxims which often reflect a slightly later stage, and an important nucleus of legal traditions... it is safe to say that [this] Muhammadan legal science started in the later part of the Umaiyad period, taking the legal practice of the time as its raw material and endorsing, modifying, or rejecting it"[41]
↑Islamic "law did not derive directly from the Koran but developed... out of popular and administrative practices under the Umayyads, and this practice often diverged from the intentions and even the explicit wording of the Koran... Norms derived from the Koran were introduced into Muhammadan law almost invariably at a secondary stage"[42]
↑"In the time of Shafi’i, traditions from the Prophet were already recognized as one of the material bases of Muhammadan law. Their position in the ancient schools of law was, as we have seen, much less certain."[43] Another example is that an early major works of fiqh—Muwatta Imam Malik (edited by Shaibani)—contains 429 ahadith by Muhammad but 750 by the Companions, Successors and others,[44] in contrast to later works by al-Bukhari, Muslim, etc. that contain only ahadith by Muhammad.
↑"...a great many traditions in the classical and other collections were put into circulation only after Shafi'i's time; the first considerable body of legal traditions from the Prophet originated towards the middle of the second century..."[46]
↑ 4.04.14.24.34.44.5John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Islamic Law". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2017.Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
↑"Customary law has also been an important part of Islamic law from the beginning. It was used to resolve disputes that were not covered by sharia, and it also helped to adapt sharia to the needs of different societies and cultures." Islamic Law: An Introduction by John Esposito (2019) Esposito, John. Islamic Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2019. Page 31
↑"Another key principle that the early Islamic jurists developed was the concept of urf, or customary law. Urf is the customary practices of a particular community. The early jurists recognized that urf could be used to supplement or complement Islamic law. For example, if there was no clear ruling on a particular issue in the Quran or hadith, the jurists could look to urf for guidance." The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law; Emon, Anver M., and Rumee Ahmed, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 25.
↑"Customary law has also been an important part of Islamic law from the beginning. It was used to resolve disputes that were not covered by sharia, and it also helped to adapt sharia to the needs of different societies and cultures." Islamic Law: An Introduction by John Esposito (2019) Esposito, John. Islamic Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2019. Page 31
↑"Another key principle that the early Islamic jurists developed was the concept of urf, or customary law. Urf is the customary practices of a particular community. The early jurists recognized that urf could be used to supplement or complement Islamic law. For example, if there was no clear ruling on a particular issue in the Quran or hadith, the jurists could look to urf for guidance." The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law; Emon, Anver M., and Rumee Ahmed, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 25.
↑Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis". Law & Social Inquiry খণ্ড 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x.
↑Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East (Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; আই.এচ.বি.এন.978-0253209399[পৃষ্ঠা নং প্ৰয়োজন]
↑Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.
↑See Refah Partİsİ (The Welfare Party) And Others V. Turkey (Applications nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98), Judgment, Strasbourg, 13 February 2003, No. 123 (siehe S. 39): "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy, since principles such as pluralism in the political sphere and the constant evolution of public freedoms have no place in it and a regime based on sharia clearly diverges from Convention values"; see Alastair Mowbray, Cases, Materials, and Commentary on the European Convention on Human Rights, OUP Oxford, 2012, p 744, Google-Books preview.
↑Abdal-Haqq, Irshad (2006). Understanding Islamic Law – From Classical to Contemporary (edited by Aminah Beverly McCloud). Chapter 1 Islamic Law – An Overview of its Origin and Elements. AltaMira Press. p. 4.
↑Ullmann, M. (2002), Wörterbuch der griechisch-arabischen Übersetzungen des neunten Jahrhunderts, Wiesbaden, p. 437. Rom. 7: 22: ‘συνήδομαι γὰρ τῷ νόμῳ τοῦ θεοῦ’ is translated as ‘أني أفرح بشريعة الله’
↑"Corps de Droit Ottoman". Law Quarterly Review (Stevens and Sons) খণ্ড 21: 443–44. October 1905., Number LXXXIV "The religious law of the Sheri, of which the ultimate source is the Koran,[...]" – A review of Corps de Droit Ottoman
↑Rashīd Riḍā, Muhammad (1996). The Muhammadan Revelation. প্ৰকাশক Alexandria, VA: Al-Saadawi Publications. পৃষ্ঠা. 127. ISBN1-881963-55-1.
↑"well into the second century A.H. [Islamic] scholarly opinion on the birth date of the Prophet displayed a range of variance of 85 years. On the assumption that chronology is crucial to the stabilization of any tradition of historical narrative, whether transmitted orally or in writing, one can see in this state of affairs a clear indication that sīra studies in the second century were still in a state of flux" Conrad (June 1987). "Abraha and Muhammad: Some Observations Apropos of Chronology and Literary topoi in the Early Arabic Historical Tradition". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 50 (2): 239. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00049016
↑"short reports (sometimes just a line or two) recording what an early figure, such as a companion of the prophet or Muhammad himself, said or did on a particular occasion, preceded by a chain of transmitters". However, she adds that "nowadays, hadith almost always means hadith from Muhammad himself." Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Muhammad?". Open Democracy. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
↑Reza Aslan quotes Schacht's maxim: `the more perfect the isnad, the later the tradition`, which he (Aslan) calls "whimsical but accurate" Future of Islam by Reza Aslan, (Random House, 2005) p.16
↑Lucas, Scott C. (2006). "The Legal Principles of Muhammad B. Ismāʿīl Al-Bukhārī and Their Relationship to Classical Salafi Islam". Islamic Law and Society খণ্ড 13 (3): 292. doi:10.1163/156851906778946341.
↑Mansoor Moaddel, Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse, pg. 32. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
↑Jonathan A. C. Brown, "Faithful Dissenters: Sunni Skepticism about the Miracles of Saints", Journal of Sufi Studies 1 (2012), p. 123
↑Christopher Taylor, In the Vicinity of the Righteous (Leiden: Brill, 1999), pp. 5–6
↑Heinrichs, Wolfhart; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund; van Donzel, Emeri Johannes; Bianquis, Thierry, eds. (2012). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam. ISBN978-90-04-16121-4.
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Sharia Law – information and misconceptions about sharia law
"Sharia" by Knut S. Vikør – In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics, via Bridging Cultures, National Endowment for the Humanities & George Mason University