Ciwon Daji na Kai da Wuya

Ciwon Daji na Kai da Wuya
Description (en) Fassara
Iri organ system cancer (en) Fassara, head and neck neoplasms (en) Fassara, respiratory system cancer (en) Fassara
cuta
Specialty (en) Fassara oncology
Medical treatment (en) Fassara
Magani vinblastine (en) Fassara, methotrexate (en) Fassara, carboplatin (en) Fassara, docetaxel (en) Fassara, pilocarpine (en) Fassara, cisplatin (en) Fassara, hydroxycarbamide (en) Fassara, fluorouracil (en) Fassara da doxorubicin hydrochloride (en) Fassara
Identifier (en) Fassara
ICD-10 C07, C14, C32 da C33
ICD-9 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148 da 149
Disease Ontology ID DOID:11934

Ciwon daji na kai da wuya yana tasowa daga cikin lebe da rami na baki (Baki), larynx (makogwaro), glandan salivary, hanci, sinuses ko fatar fuska.[1] Mafi yawan nau'in ciwon daji na kai da wuya yana faruwa a cikin lebe, baki, da makogwaro.[1] Alamomin da suka fi yawa sun hada da ciwon da baya warkewa ko sauya murya.[2] Wasu na iya samun ciwon makogwaro wanda baya tafiya. A cikin wadanda ke da ci-gaban cuta, za a iya samun zubar jini da ba a saba gani ba, ciwon fuska, radasi ko kumburi, da kullun da ake gani a waje na wuya ko kuma rami na baki. Idan aka yi la’akari da wurin da waɗannan cututtukan daji suke, ana iya samun matsalar numfashi.[3]

Yawancin ciwon kansa na wuyansa yana haifar da amfani da barasa ko taba, ciki har da taba maras hayaki, tare da karuwar lokuta masu alaka da papillomavirus (HPV).[3][4] Sauran abubuwan hadari sun hada da kwayar cutar Epstein-Barr, betel quid, fallasa radiation, wasu abubuwan da ke faruwa a wurin aiki.[3] Kimanin kashi 90% an rarraba su azaman cututtukan daji na squamous cell.[5][4] An tabbatar da ganewar asali ta hanyar biopsy na nama.[3] Za'a iya tantance matakin mamaye nama da ke kewaye da yaduwa mai nisa ta hanyar hoton likita da gwajin jini .[3]

Rashin amfani da taba ko barasa na iya rage hadarin kansa da wuyansa.[4] Alurar rigakafin HPV na iya rage hadarin rayuwa ta kansa ta baki idan an sha kafin fara jima'i, amma tabbas ba za a iya saninsa ba sai a kusa da 2060.[6] Wannan saboda ciwon daji na oropharyngeal yana nunawa a cikin shekaru 4th - 6th na rayuwa, kuma wannan sabon maganin rigakafi ne. Yayin da nunawa a cikin yawan jama'a bai bayyana yana da amfani ba, tantance gungiyoyi masu hadari ta hanyar nazarin makogwaro na iya zama da amfani.[4] Ciwon kai da wuya sau da yawa ana warkewa idan an gano shi da wuri; duk da haka, sakamakon yawanci ba shi da kyau idan an gano shi a makare.[4] Jiyya na iya hadawa da hadin tiyata, maganin radiation, chemotherapy, da maganin da aka yi niyya.[3] Binciken da ya gabata da kuma maganin kansar kansa da wuyansa yana ba da hadarin haɓaka kansa na biyu da kansa na wuya ko sake dawowa.[3]

A duk duniya, cutar kansar kai da wuya ta haifar da sabbin cututtukan daji 650,000 da mutuwar 330,000 kowace shekara a matsakaici. A cikin 2018, ita ce ta bakwai mafi yawan cutar kansa a duniya tare da sabbin maganganu 890,000 da aka rubuta kuma 450,000 ke mutuwa daga cutar.[6] A Amurka, ciwon daji na kai da wuya yana da kashi 3% na duk cututtukan daji (matsakaicin sabbin bincike 53,000 a kowace shekara) da 1.5% na mutuwar ciwon daji.[7] Alkaluman na 2017 na duniya ya ambaci kansa da wuyansa kamar yadda yake wakiltar 5.3% na duk cututtukan daji (ba tare da cututtukan cututtukan fata wadanda ba melanoma ba).[8][1] Musamman ma, ciwon daji na kai da wuya na biyu zuwa barasa na yau da kullun ko shan taba yana raguwa a hankali yayin da kasa da jama'a ke shan taba.[6] Koyaya, ciwon daji na oropharyngeal mai alaka da HPV yana karuwa, musamman a cikin matasa a cikin kasashen yamma, wanda ake tunanin yana nuna canje-canje a cikin ayyukan jima'i na baka, musamman dangane da adadin abokan jima'i na baka.[6][1] Wannan karuwa tun daga shekarun 1970 ya fi shafar kasashe masu arziki da yawan maza.[9][10][1] Wannan ya faru ne saboda shaidun da ke nuna cewa yawan watsa kwayar cutar HPV daga mata zuwa maza ya fi maza zuwa mata, saboda sau da yawa mata suna da karfin rigakafi ga kamuwa da cuta.[1][11]

Yawan shekarun da aka saba a ganewar asali shine tsakanin shekaru 55 zuwa 65.[12] Matsakaicin rayuwa na shekaru 5 bayan ganewar asali a cikin kasashen da suka ci gaba shine 42-64%.[12][13]

Alamomi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Alamomin da suka fi yawa sun hada da ciwon fuska ko rami na baki wanda baya warkewa, matsalar hadiye, ko canjin murya. A cikin wadanda ke da ci-gaban cuta, za a iya samun zubar jini da ba a saba gani ba, ciwon fuska, radadi ko kumburi, da kullun da ake gani a waje na wuya ko kuma rami na baki. [14]Ciwon daji na kai da wuya yakan fara da alamu marasa kyau da alamun cuta, kamar kakkarfan kumburin lymph a waje na wuyansa, karar murya ko kara tari ko ciwon makogwaro. Game da ciwon kai da wuyansa, wadannan alamun za su kasance masu tsayi sosai kuma su zama na yau da kullum. Ana iya samun dunkule ko ciwon makogwaro ko wuya wanda baya warkewa ko ya tafi. Ana iya samun hadiya mai wahala ko mai radadi. Magana na iya zama da wahala. Hakanan ana iya samun ciwon kunne mai tsayi .[15]

Sauran alamomin na iya hadawa da: dunƙule a cikin lebe, baki ko kumburi, gyambo ko ciwon baki wanda baya warkewa, zubar jini daga baki ko ramewa, warin baki, rashin launi da ke dawwama a cikin baki, ciwon harshe, da ɓacin magana. idan ciwon daji yana shafar harshe. Hakanan ana iya samun cunkoson sinuses, asarar nauyi, da wasu lamuni ko gurɓataccen tsokar fuska .

Baki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Squamous cell carcinoma na baki

Ciwon daji na squamous cell ya zama ruwan dare a wuraren bakin, ciki har da lebe na ciki, harshe, kasan baki, gumi, da kuma taurin baki . Ciwon daji na baki yana da alaka da shan taba, musamman amfani da taba taba ko tsoma taba, da kuma yawan shan barasa . Ciwon daji na wannan yanki, musamman harshe, an fi yin tiyata akai-akai fiye da sauran ciwon daji na kai da wuya. Ciwon daji na lebe da na baka sune nau'in ciwon kansa da wuyan da aka fi ci karo da su.[1]

Ayyukan tiyata don ciwon daji na baki sun haɗa da:

  • Maxillectomy (za a iya yi tare da ko ba tare da exenteration orbital )
  • Mandibulectomy (cire ƙananan mukamuƙi ko ɓangarensa)
  • Glossectomy (cire harshe, na iya zama duka, hemi ko bangare)
  • Rage wuyan wuyansa
  • Haduwa misali, glossectomy da laryngectomy anyi tare.

Lalacewar yawanci ana rufe/ inganta ta ta yin amfani da wani sashe na jiki da/ko dasawar fata da/ko sanye da kayan aikin roba .

Hanci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Paranasal sinus da ciwon daji na hanci yana shafar kogon hanci da kuma sinuses na paranasal . Yawancin wadannan cututtukan daji sune carcinomas squamous cell.[16]

Nasopharynx

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ciwon daji na Nasopharyngeal yana tasowa a cikin nasopharynx, yankin da kumburi na hanci da tubes na Eustachian suna haduwa da bangaren sama na makogwaro. Yayin da wasu ciwon daji na nasopharyngeal suna da ilimin halitta kama da na kowa kai da wuyansa squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs), "mara kyau daban-daban" nasopharyngeal carcinoma ne lymphoepithelioma, wanda ya bambanta a cikin cututtukan cututtuka, ilmin halitta, halin asibiti, da magani, kuma ana bi da shi a matsayin daban. cuta ta masana da yawa.

Magogwaro

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yawancin ciwon daji na oropharyngeal su ne squamous cell carcinomas wanda ya fara a cikin oropharynx (magogwaro), tsakiyar bangaren makogwaro wanda ya hada da lallausan, tushe na harshe, da tonsils . Ciwon daji na squamous cell na tonsils yana da alaka da kamuwa da cutar papillomavirus fiye da ciwon daji na wasu yankuna na kai da wuyansa. HPV-tabbataccen ciwon daji na oropharyngeal gabadaya yana da sakamako mafi kyau fiye da cutar HPV-mara kyau tare da mafi kyawun rayuwa 54%,[17] amma wannan fa'ida ga ciwon daji mai alaka da HPV ya shafi cututtukan daji na oropharyngeal ne kawai.[18]

Mutanen da ke da carcinomas na oropharyngeal suna cikin babban hadarin habaka kansa na farko na biyu da kansa.[19]

Hypopharynx

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hypopharynx ya hada da sinuses na pyriform, bangon pharyngeal na baya, da yankin postcricoid. Ciwon daji na hypopharynx akai-akai suna da mataki na gaba a ganewar asali, kuma suna da mafi munin tsinkaye na ciwan pharyngeal. Suna yawan yin metastasize da wuri saboda babban hanyar sadarwa na lymphatic a kusa da makogwaro .

Larynx

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ciwon daji na makogwaro yana farawa a cikin makogwaro ko "akwatin murya", kuma shine nau'in ciwon kai da wuya na biyu da aka fi fuskanta. [1] Ciwon daji na iya faruwa akan muryoyin murya da kansu (cancer "glottic"), ko akan kyallen takarda a sama da ƙasa da igiyoyin gaskiya ("supraglottic" da "subglottic" cancers bi da bi). Ciwon daji na makogwaro yana da alaƙa da shan taba .

Tiyata na iya hadawa da fida laser na ƙananan raunuka na igiyar murya, bangaren laryngectomy (cire wani bangare na larynx) ko jimlar laryngectomy (cire dukan makogwaro). Idan an cire duka makogwaron, an bar mutumin da tracheostomy na dindindin. Ana iya samun gyaran murya a cikin irin waɗannan marasa lafiya ta hanyoyi masu mahimmanci guda uku - magana mai ciki, tracheoesophageal huda, ko electrolarynx. Watakila mutum zai buƙaci taimakon koyarwa mai zurfi da maganin magana da/ko na'urar lantarki.

Trachea

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ciwon daji na trachea wani ciwon daji ne da ba kasafai ake kira shi da kansar huhu ba .[20]

Mai marurai na salivary gland bambanta daga kowa squamous cell carcinomas na kai da wuya a yi wa, histopathology, asibiti gabatarwa, da kuma far. Sauran ciwace-ciwacen da ba a saba gani ba da ke tasowa a kai da wuyansa sun haɗa da teratomas, adenocarcinomas, adenoid cystic carcinomas, da mucoepidermoid carcinomas . [21] Rarer har yanzu melanomas ne da lymphomas na sashin iska mai iska.

Dalilai

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Barasa da taba

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Lokacin da DNA ta sami lalacewar oxidative, biyu daga cikin mafi yawan lalacewa sun canza guanine zuwa 8-hydroxyguanine ko zuwa 2,6-diamino-4-hydroxy-5-formamidopyrimidine.

Kusan kashi 75% na lokuta ana samun su ta hanyar barasa da shan taba .[2]

Shan taba yana daya daga cikin manyan abubuwan da ke haifar da kansar kai da wuya. Wani babban fili na carcinogenic a cikin hayakin taba shine acrylonitrile .[22] Acrylonitrile ya bayyana a kaikaice yana haifar da lalacewar DNA ta hanyar kara yawan damuwa na oxidative, yana haifar da kara yawan matakan 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) da foramidopyrimidine a cikin DNA.[23] (duba hoto). Dukansu 8-oxo-dG da foramidopyrimidine sune mutagenic .[24][25] DNA glycosylase NEIL1 yana hana mutagenesis ta 8-oxo-dG[26] kuma yana cire foramidopyrimidine daga DNA. [27]

Duk da haka, masu shan taba sigari suna da hadarin hadari na kai da wuyansa wanda ya ninka 5- zuwa 25 fiye da yawan jama'a.[28] Haɗarin tsohon mai shan taba don haɓaka kansa da kansa na wuyansa ya fara kusantar haɗarin a cikin yawan jama'a shekaru 15 bayan daina shan taba.[29] Yawaitar shan taba da barasa a duk duniya da kuma yawan alakar wadannan cututtukan daji tare da wadannan abubuwan ya sa su zama manufa manufa don inganta rigakafin cutar kansa.

Taba mara shan taba yana haifar da ciwon daji na baki da kuma ciwon daji na oropharyngeal .[30] Taba mara shan taba (ciki har da kayayyakin da ake tauna sigari) yana da alaƙa da hadarin kamuwa da kansa da kansa; An kafa wannan hanyar sadarwa a Amurka da kuma a kasashen Gabashin Asiya.[31][32] Shan taba sigari kuma muhimmin abu ne mai hadari ga kansar baki.[33] Ya kamata a kuma lura cewa amfani da sigari na lantarki kuma yana iya haifar da haɓakar kansar kai da wuyansa saboda sinadarai kamar propylene glycol, glycerol, nitrosamines da karafa da ke cikin; wanda zai iya haifar da lahani ga hanyoyin iska.[34] Wannan yanki na binciken yana bukatar karin bincike don tabbatar da alaka da/ko sanadi, duk da haka.[34]

Sauran cututtukan daji na muhalli da ake zargi da zama abubuwan da ke haifar da kansa da wuyansa sun hada da abubuwan da suka shafi sana'a irin su tace nickel, fallasa zaruruwan yadi, da aikin itace. Amfani da marijuana, musamman ma lokacin kanana, an danganta shi da haɓakar cututtukan cututtukan kwayar cuta a cikin akalla binciken guda daya,[35] yayin da wasu nazarin ke nuna amfani da shi ba a nuna yana da alaƙa da kwayar kwayar kwayar kwayar cuta ta baka, ko kuma hade da raguwa. squamous cell carcinoma.[36][37]

Bincike

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Immunotherapy tare da masu hana shinge na rigakafi ana bincikar kansa a cikin kansa da wuyansa.[38]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Aupérin A (May 2020). "Epidemiology of head and neck cancers: an update". Current Opinion in Oncology. 32 (3): 178–186. doi:10.1097/CCO.0000000000000629. PMID 32209823. S2CID 214644380.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Oropharyngeal Cancer Treatment (Adult) (PDQ®)–Patient Version". National Cancer Institute (in Turanci). 22 November 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 "Head and Neck Cancers". NCI. 29 March 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 World Cancer Report 2014. World Health Organization. 2014. pp. Chapter 5.8. ISBN 978-9283204299.
  5. ↑ Vigneswaran N, Williams MD (May 2014). "Epidemiologic trends in head and neck cancer and aids in diagnosis". Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Clinics of North America. 26 (2): 123–141. doi:10.1016/j.coms.2014.01.001. PMC 4040236. PMID 24794262.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Chow LQ (January 2020). "Head and Neck Cancer". The New England Journal of Medicine. 382 (1): 60–72. doi:10.1056/nejmra1715715. PMID 31893516. S2CID 209482428.
  7. ↑ Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A (January 2020). "Cancer statistics, 2020". Ca. 70 (1): 7–30. doi:10.3322/caac.21590. PMID 31912902.
  8. ↑ Fitzmaurice C, Abate D, Abbasi N, Abbastabar H, Abd-Allah F, Abdel-Rahman O, et al. (Global Burden of Disease Cancer Collaboration) (December 2019). "Global, Regional, and National Cancer Incidence, Mortality, Years of Life Lost, Years Lived With Disability, and Disability-Adjusted Life-Years for 29 Cancer Groups, 1990 to 2017: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study". JAMA Oncology. 5 (12): 1749–1768. doi:10.1001/jamaoncol.2019.2996. PMC 6777271. PMID 31560378.
  9. ↑ Gillison ML, Castellsagué X, Chaturvedi A, Goodman MT, Snijders P, Tommasino M, et al. (February 2014). "Eurogin Roadmap: comparative epidemiology of HPV infection and associated cancers of the head and neck and cervix". International Journal of Cancer. 134 (3): 497–507. doi:10.1002/ijc.28201. PMID 23568556. S2CID 37877664.
  10. ↑ Gillison ML, Chaturvedi AK, Anderson WF, Fakhry C (October 2015). "Epidemiology of Human Papillomavirus-Positive Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 33 (29): 3235–3242. doi:10.1200/JCO.2015.61.6995. PMC 4979086. PMID 26351338.
  11. ↑ Giuliano AR, Nyitray AG, Kreimer AR, Pierce Campbell CM, Goodman MT, Sudenga SL, et al. (June 2015). "EUROGIN 2014 roadmap: differences in human papillomavirus infection natural history, transmission and human papillomavirus-related cancer incidence by gender and anatomic site of infection". International Journal of Cancer. 136 (12): 2752–2760. doi:10.1002/ijc.29082. PMC 4297584. PMID 25043222.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "SEER Stat Fact Sheets: Oral Cavity and Pharynx Cancer". SEER. April 2016. Archived from the original on 15 November 2016. Retrieved 29 September 2016.
  13. ↑ Beyzadeoglu M, Ozyigit G, Selek U (2014). Radiation Therapy for Head and Neck Cancers: A Case-Based Review (in Turanci). Springer. p. 18. ISBN 9783319104133. Archived from the original on 2017-09-10.
  14. ↑ McIlwain WR, Sood AJ, Nguyen SA, Day TA (May 2014). "Initial symptoms in patients with HPV-positive and HPV-negative oropharyngeal cancer". JAMA Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery. 140 (5): 441–447. doi:10.1001/jamaoto.2014.141. PMID 24652023.
  15. ↑ Ensley JF (2003). Head and neck cancer : emerging perspectives. Amsterdam: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-053384-1. OCLC 180905431.
  16. ↑ "Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer Treatment (Adult) (PDQ®)–Patient Version". National Cancer Institute (in Turanci). 8 November 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
  17. ↑ O'Rorke MA, Ellison MV, Murray LJ, Moran M, James J, Anderson LA (December 2012). "Human papillomavirus related head and neck cancer survival: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Oral Oncology. 48 (12): 1191–1201. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2012.06.019. PMID 22841677. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-09-10.
  18. ↑ Ragin CC, Taioli E (October 2007). "Survival of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck in relation to human papillomavirus infection: review and meta-analysis". International Journal of Cancer. 121 (8): 1813–1820. doi:10.1002/ijc.22851. PMID 17546592.
  19. ↑ Krishnatreya M, Rahman T, Kataki AC, Das A, Das AK, Lahkar K (2013). "Synchronous primary cancers of the head and neck region and upper aero digestive tract: defining high-risk patients". Indian Journal of Cancer. 50 (4): 322–326. doi:10.4103/0019-509x.123610. PMID 24369209.
  20. ↑ "Throat cancer | Head and neck cancers | Cancer Research UK". www.cancerresearchuk.org. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  21. ↑ Ridge JA, Glisson BS, Lango MN, Feigenberg S, Horwitz EM (2008). "Head and neck tumors." (PDF). In Pazdur R, Wagman LD, Camphausen KA, Hoskins WJ (eds.). Cancer management: a multidisciplinary approach (11th ed.). pp. 39–86.
  22. ↑ Cunningham FH, Fiebelkorn S, Johnson M, Meredith C (November 2011). "A novel application of the Margin of Exposure approach: segregation of tobacco smoke toxicants". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 49 (11): 2921–2933. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2011.07.019. PMID 21802474.
  23. ↑ Pu X, Kamendulis LM, Klaunig JE (September 2009). "Acrylonitrile-induced oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage in male Sprague-Dawley rats". Toxicological Sciences. 111 (1): 64–71. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfp133. PMC 2726299. PMID 19546159.
  24. ↑ Kalam MA, Haraguchi K, Chandani S, Loechler EL, Moriya M, Greenberg MM, Basu AK (2006). "Genetic effects of oxidative DNA damages: comparative mutagenesis of the imidazole ring-opened formamidopyrimidines (Fapy lesions) and 8-oxo-purines in simian kidney cells". Nucleic Acids Research. 34 (8): 2305–2315. doi:10.1093/nar/gkl099. PMC 1458282. PMID 16679449.
  25. ↑ Jena NR, Mishra PC (October 2013). "Is FapyG mutagenic?: Evidence from the DFT study". ChemPhysChem. 14 (14): 3263–3270. doi:10.1002/cphc.201300535. PMID 23934915.
  26. ↑ Suzuki T, Harashima H, Kamiya H (May 2010). "Effects of base excision repair proteins on mutagenesis by 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-hydroxyguanine) paired with cytosine and adenine". DNA Repair. 9 (5): 542–550. doi:10.1016/j.dnarep.2010.02.004. hdl:2115/43021. PMID 20197241.
  27. ↑ Nemec AA, Wallace SS, Sweasy JB (October 2010). "Variant base excision repair proteins: contributors to genomic instability". Seminars in Cancer Biology. 20 (5): 320–328. doi:10.1016/j.semcancer.2010.10.010. PMC 3254599. PMID 20955798.
  28. ↑ Andre K, Schraub S, Mercier M, Bontemps P (September 1995). "Role of alcohol and tobacco in the aetiology of head and neck cancer: a case-control study in the Doubs region of France". European Journal of Cancer. Part B, Oral Oncology. 31B (5): 301–309. doi:10.1016/0964-1955(95)00041-0. PMID 8704646.
  29. ↑ La Vecchia C, Franceschi S, Bosetti C, Levi F, Talamini R, Negri E (April 1999). "Time since stopping smoking and the risk of oral and pharyngeal cancers". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 91 (8): 726–728. doi:10.1093/jnci/91.8.726a. hdl:2434/520105. PMID 10218516.
  30. ↑ Winn D (1992). "Smokeless tobacco and aerodigestive tract cancers: recent research directions". The Biology and Prevention of Aerodigestive Tract Cancers. Adv Exp Med Biol. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 320. pp. 39–46. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-3468-6_6. ISBN 978-0-306-44244-5. PMID 1442283.
  31. ↑ Wyss AB, Hashibe M, Lee YA, Chuang SC, Muscat J, Chen C, et al. (November 2016). "Smokeless Tobacco Use and the Risk of Head and Neck Cancer: Pooled Analysis of US Studies in the INHANCE Consortium". American Journal of Epidemiology. 184 (10): 703–716. doi:10.1093/aje/kww075. PMC 5141945. PMID 27744388.
  32. ↑ Lee YA, Li S, Chen Y, Li Q, Chen CJ, Hsu WL, et al. (January 2019). "Tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking, betel quid chewing, and the risk of head and neck cancer in an East Asian population". Head & Neck. 41 (1): 92–102. doi:10.1002/hed.25383. PMID 30552826. S2CID 54632009.
  33. ↑ Iribarren C, Tekawa IS, Sidney S, Friedman GD (June 1999). "Effect of cigar smoking on the risk of cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cancer in men". The New England Journal of Medicine. 340 (23): 1773–1780. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.460.1056. doi:10.1056/NEJM199906103402301. PMID 10362820.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Ralho A, Coelho A, Ribeiro M, Paula A, Amaro I, Sousa J, et al. (December 2019). "Effects of Electronic Cigarettes on Oral Cavity: A Systematic Review". The Journal of Evidence-Based Dental Practice. 19 (4): 101318. doi:10.1016/j.jebdp.2019.04.002. PMID 31843181. S2CID 145920823.
  35. ↑ Zhang ZF, Morgenstern H, Spitz MR, Tashkin DP, Yu GP, Marshall JR, et al. (December 1999). "Marijuana use and increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 8 (12): 1071–1078. PMID 10613339.
  36. ↑ Rosenblatt KA, Daling JR, Chen C, Sherman KJ, Schwartz SM (June 2004). "Marijuana use and risk of oral squamous cell carcinoma". Cancer Research. 64 (11): 4049–4054. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-03-3425. PMID 15173020.
  37. ↑ Liang C, McClean MD, Marsit C, Christensen B, Peters E, Nelson HH, Kelsey KT (August 2009). "A population-based case-control study of marijuana use and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma". Cancer Prevention Research. 2 (8): 759–768. doi:10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-09-0048. PMC 2812803. PMID 19638490.
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