Dokar Ruwa a Amurka

Dokar Ruwa a Amurka
Dam ɗin Gold ray, Amurka
Hasumiyar Ruwa ta Florida Amurka

Dokar Ruwa a Amurka, tana nufin dokokin albarkatun ruwa dake tsara ruwa a matsayin albarkatun ƙasa a Amurka. Bayan batutuwan gama-gari ga duk hukunce-hukuncen da ke ƙoƙarin daidaita amfani da ruwa, dole ne dokar ruwa a Amurka ta ci karo da abubuwa kamar haka:

  • Dokokin jama'a na ruwa, gami da kula da ambaliyar ruwa, ka'idojin muhalli - jaha da tarayya, tsarin kula da lafiyar jama'a da tsarin kamun kifi
  • Haɗin kai na haƙƙin jama'a da masu zaman kansu a cikin ruwa, wanda ke zana abubuwan fitattun dokokin yanki da ikon sashe na kasuwanci na tarayya ;
  • Dokar aikin ruwa: dokar da aka haɓaka sosai game da samuwar, aiki, da kuɗin kuɗin jama'a da ƙungiyoyin jama'a waɗanda ke gudanar da ayyukan jama'a na gida na kula da ambaliya, sarrafa kewayawa, ban ruwa, da kuma guje wa lalata muhalli ; kuma
  • Haƙƙoƙin Yarjejeniyar Baƙin Amurkawa .

Dokar da ke gudanar da waɗannan batutuwa ta samo asali ne daga dukkan matakan dokokin Amurka. Wasu sun samo asali ne daga ka'idodin doka na gama-gari waɗanda suka bunƙasa tsawon shekaru aru-aru, kuma waɗanda ke tasowa yayin da yanayin jayayyar da ake gabatarwa kotuna ke canzawa. Misali, tsarin shari'a game da haƙƙin masu mallakar ƙasa don karkatar da ruwan saman ya canza sosai a ƙarnin da ya gabata yayin da halayen jama'a game da ƙasa da ruwa suka samo asali. Wasu sun samo asali ne daga dokar doka ta jiha. Wasu suna samun ne daga asalin tallafin filaye da jama'a ke bayarwa ga jihohi da kuma takardun asalinsu.

Doka gama gari tushen dokar ruwa

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{Ƙasar Amirka ta gaji tsarin dokokin bai-daya na Birtaniyya wanda ke samar da ka'idojin shari'a ta hanyar yanke hukunci na shari'a game da takaddama tsakanin bangarori. Dokokin doka da tsarin mulki sun tsara tsarin da ake warware waɗannan rikice-rikice a cikinsa, har zuwa wani lokaci, amma dokar yanke shawara da aka samo ta hanyar warware takaddama ta musamman ita ce babbar injin dokar ruwa.

A dokar gama gari dole ne a nemi duk wani haƙƙin ruwa bisa la’akari da ƙasar da ruwa ke gudana ko ya kwanta. [1] Mai mallakar ƙasa na ƙasa zai iya kawo wani mataki a kan mai shi na sama saboda ragewa da yawa da ingancin ruwan da ke isowa a ƙasa.

Rigingimun ruwa sun taso a cikin abubuwa da dama. Lokacin da gwamnati, ƙaramar hukuma, ko tarayya ta ɗauki kadarorin masu zaman kansu waɗanda ke da haƙƙin ruwa da ke da alaƙa da mallakar sirri, ƙimar wannan kadarar tana da matukar tasiri ga haƙƙin ruwanta. Kuma, kadarorin da ke gefen ruwan jama'a sun zama ruwan dare gama gari, saboda mahimmancin ruwan jama'a ga kasuwanci, muhalli, da nishaɗi . Waɗannan shari'o'in suna wakiltar babban tushen dokar da ke bayyana iyakokin haƙƙin masu zaman kansu a cikin ruwa da haƙƙin jama'a.

Wani yanayi na biyu na samar da dokar ruwa ya taso ne daga takaddamar da ke tsakanin bangarori masu zaman kansu dangane da girman hakkokinsu na ruwa; misali, mai mallakar ƙasa a sama yana neman yanke magudanar ruwa a ƙasa kuma ya dace da waɗannan ruwan saman don amfani da shi na musamman. Mai mallakar ƙasa ya yi iƙirarin cewa mai gidan na sama ya ware ruwan da ke mallakarsa. Mai gida na neman dakatar da kwararar ruwa da ya wuce gona da iri wanda idan ba haka ba zai mamaye kasarsa ta yadda zai kara barnar ambaliya a kan mai ita. Kowanne bangare ya yi iƙirarin cewa halin ɗayan yana yin katsalandan ga haƙƙoƙin da ke tattare da mallakarsu na kadarorin.

Halin na uku na dokar ruwa ya taso ne daga jayayya game da ambaliya ko wasu mamaye dukiya ta hanyar ruwa. A cikin waɗannan lokuta, ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu suna iƙirarin cewa ayyukan sirri ko na jama'a sun lalata dukiyarta na sirri, kuma dole ne kotu ta yanke hukunci game da yanayin haƙƙin jama'a da masu zaman kansu da suka taso daga canjin yanayin ruwa na ruwa .

Yana da mahimmanci a gane cewa akwai haƙƙoƙin sirri da na jama'a da ke da alaƙa da ruwa, amma ikon mallakar ruwa a ƙarƙashin dokar gama gari ana kamanta da iƙirarin "mallaka" hasken rana. Dole ne a ba da izinin samar da ruwa bisa ka'ida kafin a 'mallake shi', kuma hukumomin gwamnati da dokokin shari'a galibi ke sarrafa ka'idoji kan rabon. Wanene ke da rinjaye akan ruwa yawanci ya dogara ne akan wanda ya mallaki ƙasan ƙasa, amma dokokin gida, Jihohi da na Tarayya galibi suna iyakance adadin da nau'in amfani da ruwan da za'a iya amfani dashi don kare haƙƙin masu amfani da ƙasa. A wani lokaci, kafin ruwa ya isa teku sai ya tara isashen girma ta yadda filayen da ke karkashin kasa suka zama mallakin kasa ko jihar da suke cikinta. A wannan lokaci (wanda aka bayyana a matsayin babban iyakar kewayawa) haƙƙoƙin mutum ɗaya yana ba da hanya ga mafi girman haƙƙoƙin jama'a.

Haƙƙoƙin ‘yan qasar

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Jihohin Gabas (duk waɗanda ke gabashin Texas, ban da Mississippi ), suna bin koyarwar kogi, wanda ke ba wa duk wanda ƙasarsa ke da gaban gaba a jikin ruwa don amfani da ruwa daga gare ta. Waɗannan jihohin su ne na farko da Turawa suka fara zama (saboda haka dokar Ingilishi ta fi rinjaye) kuma suna da mafi yawan ruwa. Kotun Koli ta yi bayanin juyin halitta na ka'idodin rafi a cikin Amurka v. Gerlach Dabbobin (1950)

A tsakiyar karni na goma sha takwas, dokokin gama gari na Ingilishi sun haɗa da rukunin rukunan ruwa da aka sani da haƙƙin kogi. Tun da dadewa kamar yadda Cibiyoyin Justinian, ruwa mai gudana, kamar iska da teku, sun kasance res communes - abubuwa na kowa ga kowa da dukiyoyin kowa. Irin wannan koyaswar ce ta masu sharhi kan dokokin farar hula da ke kunshe a cikin ka'idar Napoleon da kuma a cikin dokar Spain. Wannan ra'ayi ya shiga cikin dokar gama gari. Daga waɗannan kafofin, amma galibi daga tushen dokokin farar hula, masu bincike da ƙarfi na Chancellor Kent da Mista Justice Story sun zana don samar da ainihin koyaswar dokar ruwa ta Amurka.

Ma'anar magudanar ruwa ta samo asali sosai a waɗancan sassan Amurka inda aka shayar da ƙasa da ruwan sama . Amurka v. Gerlach, supra. Hukuncin Kotun ya ci gaba da cewa kamar haka:

Babban kadari na halitta shi ne ƙasa, kuma gudun hijira a cikin rafuka ko koguna ya kasance mai haɗari. Tunda samun damar samun ruwa mai gudana yana yiwuwa ta kan filaye masu zaman kansu kawai, samun dama ya zama haƙƙi da aka haɗe zuwa gaci. Dokar ta bi ka’idar daidaito wadda ta bukaci da cewa gawar ruwan da ke gudana ta zama mallakin kowa, kuma baya ga iyakacin amfani da su na cikin gida da noma da wadanda ke sama, kowane mai kogin yana da hakkin ya gangaro masa ruwa. a cikin ƙararrakinta na halitta da tashoshi marasa lahani cikin inganci.


Gabatarwa

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Yawancin jihohin yammacin, bushewa ta halitta, gaba ɗaya suna bin rukunan appropriation na gaba, wanda ke ba da damar ruwa ga duk wanda ya fara sanya ruwa zuwa amfani mai amfani . Colorado, inda koyaswar da ta gabata ta fara tasowa, gaba ɗaya ana kallonta azaman abin ƙira ta sauran jihohin Yammacin Turai waɗanda suka karɓi koyaswar rabon da suka gabata.

A wasu jihohin Ruwan da ke saman kasa, tafkuna, koguna, da maɓuɓɓugar ruwa, ana bi da su daban da ruwan ƙasa da ruwan da ake hakowa ta hanyar haƙa rijiyoyi ; duk da haka, a wasu jihohi ana sarrafa ruwan saman da ƙasa tare. Misali, a New Mexico, ana sarrafa ruwan sama da na kasa tare tun shekarun 1950. Wannan yanayin ya fito ne daga haɓakar fahimtar kimiyya game da tsoffin halayen tsarin ruwa na ƙarƙashin ƙasa. Misali, an yi bayanin gurbacewar ruwa da gishiri sannu a hankali tare da sanin cewa ɗibar ruwa daga rijiyar yana haifar da ɓarna a hankali a cikin yankin rijiyar, wanda zai iya gurɓata ta da yankunan da ke kewaye da ruwan teku daga gabar tekun da ke kusa. Irin wannan ilimin yana da amfani don fahimtar tasirin ayyukan ɗan adam akan samar da ruwa amma kuma yana iya haifar da sababbin hanyoyin rikici.

Dokokin tarayya, jihohi, da na gida iri-iri ne ke tafiyar da haƙƙin ruwa. Wani batu na musamman ga Amurka shine dokar ruwa dangane da Indiyawan Amurka . Hakkokin ruwa na kabilanci lamari ne na musamman saboda ba su faɗo ƙarƙashin tsarin kogi ko tsarin rabo amma an bayyana su a cikin Winters v. Shawarar Amurka . Haƙƙoƙin ruwa na Indiya ba su shafi ƙabilun da ba na tarayya ba.

Kabilun Indiya da aka amince da tarayya da dokar ruwa

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Haƙƙoƙin ruwa na ƴan asalin ƙasar Amirka da aka keɓance ana fi sani da ' Haƙƙin Winters, waɗanda Winters da Arizona v. California lokuta.

  1. Dokar tarayya ta bayyana haƙƙoƙi
  2. Ƙirƙirar ajiyar ta hanyar yarjejeniya, ƙa'ida ko odar zartarwa ta haɗa da ma'anar tanadin haƙƙin ruwa a cikin maɓuɓɓugar ciki ko iyakar ajiyar.[2]
  3. Dangane da kwanan wata, masu amfani waɗanda ke da kwanakin rabon da suka gabata a ƙarƙashin dokar jiha suna fifiko akan haƙƙoƙin ƴan asalin ƙasar Amurka, amma waɗanda ke da kwanakin baya suna ƙarƙashin ƙasa.
  4. Yawan ruwan da aka tanada shine adadin da ya ishe don ban ruwa duk ƙasar da za a iya ban ruwa akan ajiyar
  5. Ba a rasa haƙƙoƙia rashin amfani

Ƙabilun Indiyawa suna da haƙƙin ruwa kawai bayan sun ƙaddamar da aikin gona mai ban sha'awa (PIA). A cewar masanin shari'a Bruce Duthu, dole ne ƙabilu su tabbatar da cewa ana buƙatar adadin ruwan da ake bukata don filinsu da kuma gina wuraren da za a ceto shi. [3]

Misali: Winters v. Amurka

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Winters v. Amurka (1908) ya haɗa da Tsarin Tsarin Indiya na Fort Belknap, wanda aka ƙirƙira ta yarjejeniyar shekara ta 1888 tare da gwamnatin tarayya. Wannan yarjejeniya ta sanya iyaka ɗaya na ajiyar wani yanki na Kogin Milk, amma bai ambaci haƙƙin ruwa ga wannan kogin ba. Bayan haka, mazauna yankin da ba Indiyawa ba, sun gina madatsun ruwa a cikin kogin da suka kawo cikas ga amfanin noma na kabilar. Mazaunan sun yi ikirarin haƙƙin da suka dace bayan an kafa ajiyar, amma kafin ƙabilar ta fara amfani da ruwan. Kotun Koli ta yanke hukuncin cewa an tanadi haƙƙin ruwa ta atomatik ta yarjejeniyar shekara ta 1888 wacce ta haifar da ajiyar. Kotun ta yi zaton Indiyawan ba za su tanadi filayen noma ba tare da tanadin ruwan da zai sa irin wannan noman ya yiwu ba. [4]

Misali: Arizona v. California

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A cikin Arizona v. California (1963), dole ne Kotun ta ƙayyade haƙƙin ruwa na ƙabilun da ke kusa da Kogin Colorado waɗanda ƙa'idoji da umarnin zartarwa suka kafa. Kotun ta yi imanin cewa doka ko umarnin zartarwa ba zai iya nufin kafa tanadi ba tare da tanadin amfani da ruwa don amfanin ƙabilun ba. Don haka,

Haƙƙoƙi masu siye ba Ba-Amurke ba

1. Ba'amurke ɗan asalin ƙasar yana da haƙƙin rabon ruwan ajiyar da ake buƙata don ban ruwa ƙasarsu.

2. Lokacin da Ba'amurke ya sayar da kason su ga wanda ba Ba'amurke ba, mai siye yana samun haƙƙin ruwa da aka keɓe na rabon.

3. Ranar fifiko na waɗannan haƙƙoƙin ya kasance ranar da aka ƙirƙiri ajiyar.

Winters haƙƙoƙi a matsayin dukiya

Haƙƙoƙin lokacin sanyi da ke fitowa daga yarjejeniya ko ƙa'ida ta ƙirƙira ajiyar dukiya mallaki ce wacce aka san take. Lokacin da odar zartaswa ta ƙirƙiri ajiyar wuri, "ba a san sunan ƙabila don dalilai na Gyara na Biyar ba."

Kogin Arkansas yana gudana ta arewa maso gabashin Oklahoma

Ƙabilu Ba a cikin tanadi

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Hakkokin ruwa na Cherokee

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Wannan shari'ar ta kotu ta ayyana matsayin ƙabilun Amirkawa a kotun zamani. Ya shafi haƙƙin ruwa a cikin al'amarin al'ummar Cherokee. Haƙƙin Winters ba sa aiki ga ƙasar Cherokee saboda babu ainihin ajiyar Cherokee. A cikin wannan ci gaba na Yuli na shekara ta 2009, jihar Oklahoma ta nemi diyya ta kuɗi da agajin gaggawa kan Kamfanin Abinci na Tyson, saboda raunin da ruwan kogin Illinois ya yi daga sharar kaji. Wanda ake tuhuma, Tyson Foods, Inc., ya yi watsi da karar saboda Cherokee Nation ba ta da hannu a ciki, kodayake jam'iyyar da ake bukata ce. Hukuncin wannan ƙuduri ya taimaka wajen sanin matsayin kasar Cherokee dangane da haƙƙin ruwa a yankinsu.

Kotun, domin tantance ko za a iya ci gaba da shari’ar ba tare da sa hannun ‘yan kabilar Cherokee ba, ta yi amfani da doka ta 19. Mataki na farko a cikin wannan tsari ya ƙayyade idan ƙasar Cherokee wata ƙungiya ce da ake bukata, ma'ana cewa ba za a iya ba da cikakken taimako ba, rashin su zai hana mutum damar kare sha'awar, ko kuma ƙarin wajibai na iya faruwa saboda sha'awar. A cikin wannan hukuncin na kotu, an ƙaddara cewa ƙasar Cherokee tana da buƙatu masu mahimmanci, kamar yadda aka gani a cikin Lambobin Ingancin Muhalli wanda ke nuna sha'awar kare kogin Illinois da kuɓutar da duk wani gurbataccen yanayi . Ƙasar Cherokee kuma tana da sha'awar dawo da magunguna ga duk wani rauni, a cikin tsari da harajin abubuwa da suka shafi muhallin Cherokee Nation. Bugu da ƙari, Ƙasar Cherokee ta yi iƙirarin haƙƙoƙin ruwa da aka samo daga dokar tarayya kuma yarjejeniyoyin ba su shafe su ba. A cikin shiga yarjejeniyar haɗin gwiwa tare da kabilu, wanda zai zama dole don warware matsalar haƙƙin ruwa (musamman a cikin yanayin Cherokee Nation da Tyson Foods) dole ne jihar Oklahoma ta cika buƙatun bayyane.

Dokar aikin ruwa

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Dokar aikin ruwa wani reshe ne na dokar jiha da tarayya wanda ke magana akan gine-gine, gudanarwa, kudade, da kuma gyara manyan ayyukan ruwa, ciki har da magudanar ruwa, ban ruwa, shawo kan ambaliyar ruwa, kewayawa da sauran ayyuka. Wasu daga cikin wadannan ayyuka gwamnatocin jihohi da na kananan hukumomi ne ke gudanar da su. Amma da yawa ana gina su da kuma sarrafa su ta hanyar gundumomi na musamman na inganta rayuwar jama'a, waɗanda ƙungiyoyin siyasa ne na musamman na gwamnatin jaha.

Dokar aikin ruwa ta na da, kuma tana ci gaba da samun muhimmiyar rawa wajen kula da muhimman albarkatun ruwa. Misali, magudanar ruwan noma, wanda mafi yawansu a yanzu ke da alhakin kula da muhimman ababen more rayuwa, ya samo asali ne daga wadannan gundumomi ko wasu hukumomi. Magudanar ruwa a Amurka ya faru ne a cikin lokuttan haɓakawa na farko guda biyu, a tsakanin 1870-1920 da kuma lokacin 1945-1960. Ya zuwa shekara ta 1920, fiye da 53 million acres (210,000 km2) daga cikin jimlar 956 million acres (3,870,000 km2) na ƙasar noma ta Amurka ta sami wani nau'i na magudanar ruwa. Ma'aikatar Aikin Gona ta Amurka (USDA), 1982 Inventory Resources Inventory (NRI) ta gano kusan 107 million acres (430,000 km2) na rigar ƙasa kamar yadda yake mafi kyau ko kuma magudanar ruwa mai kyau, wanda kashi 72 cikin 100 na gonaki ne. (Sabis na Binciken Tattalin Arziki, 1987. ) Sau da yawa, ana gina ayyukan jihohi a ƙarƙashin rigar hukumomin aikin ruwa na gida, ta hanyar amfani da kudade na musamman na tarayya da aka ware don waɗannan dalilai. Sau da yawa yankin dole ne ya amince a mayar da ainihin asusun tarayya don ci gaba da aikin har abada tare da kudaden gida, wanda aka samo ko dai daga haraji ko ƙima na musamman.

Ko da yake akwai musamman fasali na dokar jiha ga kayan aikin aikin ruwa, akwai abubuwa da yawa a gamayya. Yawancin wadannan gundumomi ne na ingantawa na musamman da dokar jihar ta ba su damar tattara kuɗaɗen shiga daga filayen da aka ci gajiyar ci gaban. Sau da yawa waɗannan ƙididdigar suna cikin nau'i na ƙima na musamman wanda yayi daidai da karuwar ƙimar da aka ba da filin da aka amfana ta hanyar aikin.

Wasu gundumomi ana gudanar da su ne a ƙarƙashin kwamitin da aka zaɓa. Haƙƙin jefa ƙuri'a na iya dogara ne akan yawan jama'a a gundumar ko a wasu lokuta bisa mallakar filayen da aka amfana. A wasu jahohi, wasu gundumomi ana gudanar da su ne ta wasu ƙananan hukumomin da ake da su, kamar gwamnatin gundumomi, amma ƙarƙashin ikon doka na musamman. Dokokin da ke gudanar da waɗannan gundumomi suna gudanar da ikon tattara kima, caji, ko haraji. Sun ƙayyade wajibcin hukuma don kiyayewa. A wasu lokuta, kafa aikin, ko gunduma, yana ba wa masu mallakar ƙasa dama haƙƙin doka don nacewa a ci gaba da kiyaye aikin idan an cika ka'idojin doka. Misali, ana iya buƙatar wasu adadin masu mallakar ƙasa don yin koke, kuma su nuna cewa an cika sharuɗɗan kulawa.

Manyan shari'o'in shari'a a cikin dokar ruwa ta Amurka

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Tushen Dokar Ruwa

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Manazarta

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  1. ↑ Blackstone Commentries Vol II pg. 18
  2. ↑ Canby, William C (2004). "American Indian Law in a Nutshell", p. 431-432. West, a Thompson business., Minnesota. 08033994793.ABA.
  3. ↑ Duthu, N. Bruce (2008). "American Indians and the Law," p. 106-107. Viking Penguin, New York, 08033994793.ABA.
  4. ↑ Canby Jr., William C. American Indian Law in a Nutshell. St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 2004. Pg. 429.

Hanyoyin haɗi na waje

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