1520年に制定された「インド法(スペイン語:Ordenações da Índia)」では王室の所有する船や、インドからポルトガルに香辛料を運んで来る私船では、たとえ船長や財務監督の許可があっても、男性奴隷および女性奴隷の乗船を禁じている[38]。1520年3月のインド総督ディオゴ・ロペス・デ・セケイラへの書簡では、例外として船の安全のために必要であれば、男性奴隷である限り20人までの乗船を認めると定めている。男性奴隷は船の航行を助けるのに十分な能力と知識を持つ限りにおいて乗船を許可された[39][40]。
日本人の奴隷に焦点をあてた最初期の史学研究は岡本良知「十六世紀日欧交通史の研究」(1936年、改訂版1942-1944年)とされている[注釈 36][110]。日本の労働形態の歴史と、ポルトガル人の奴隷貿易との関連性についてはC・R・ボクサー「Fidalgos in the Far East (1550-1771)」(1948年)[113]が指摘しており、奴隷という用語に隠蔽されていた多様な労働形態(例えば傭兵や商人)の存在を明らかにした。その後、この問題に新たな視点から取り組む動きはなく、牧英正「人身売買」 (1971年) [114]、藤木久志「雑兵たちの戦場中世の傭兵と奴隷狩り」(1995年)[115]などによって日本側の資料から解明しようとする試みが行われた[110]。
最新の日本人奴隷の研究成果については、ルシオ・デ・ソウザの著作「The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan」(2019年)がある[110][116]。野心的な研究として高く評価される一方で、歴史学者ハリエット・ズーンドーファー[注釈 37]はポルトガル人の逸話、発言や報告にある信頼性の低い記述を貧弱な説明と共にそのまま引用していること、どこで得られた情報なのかを示す正確な参考文献を提示しないために検証不可能であり、書籍中での主張に疑念を抱かさせるといった批判をしている[118]。近世日本の社会経済史を専門とするギヨーム・カレ[注釈 38]はデ・ソウザが西洋圏の一次資料や二次資料に焦点を当てる一方で、日本における中世末期から17世紀までの奴隷制の慣行に関する膨大な研究成果を利用しなかったことで、依存と服従の形が隷属と見分けがつかないようなポルトガル人来航以前の日本の社会状況を知ることができず、日本における隷属の歴史から見たポルトガル人の特殊性への考察が欠けているとも論評している[119][注釈 39][注釈 40]。
奴隷交易を非難する声は大西洋奴隷貿易が行われたかなり初期から挙がっていた。その期間のヨーロッパにおいて奴隷制に対する非難を行った初期の人物の1人がドミニコ会のガスパル・ダ・クルス(Gaspar da Cruz)(1550- 1575)であり、彼は奴隷交易業者たちの「自分たちはすでに奴隷にされていた子供らを「合法的に」買っただけだ」という言い分を退けた人物である[281]。
^ abcde1555年に「A Arte da Guerra do Mar」(海戦術)を出版したポルトガル人ドミニコ会修道士フェルナン・デ・オリヴェイラは異教徒との戦争であっても、キリスト教徒のものであった領土を侵略した国々に対してのみ行えるとした[14]。1556年に出版され、ジョアン3世 (ポルトガル王)宛に書かれたと見られる「Por que causas se pode mover guerra justa contra infieis」では、異教徒に対する正戦を宗教的なものでなく完全に政治的な行為とし、共同体の領地を占領したり、犯罪をしたものを罰するために行われるとしている[15]。
^(『大西洋奴隷データベース』のデータセット作成者)Stephen D. Behrendt, Victoria University, Wellington, NZ、Daniel B. Domingues da Silva, Rice University、David Eltis, Emory University and University of British Columbia、Herbert S. Klein, Stanford University、Paul Lachance, Emory University、Philip Misevich, St. John’s University、David Richardson, Hull University, UK
^(『大西洋奴隷データベース』のコントリビューター)Rosanne Adderley, Richard A. Arzill, Joseph Avitable, Manuel Barcia Paz, Maria del Carmen,Barcia Zequeira, James G. Basker, José Luis Belmonte Postigo, Franz Binder, Richard Birkett, Ernst van den Boogart, Alex Borucki, Angela J. Campbell, James Campbell, Mariana Pinho, Candido, José Capela, Comité de Liaison et d'Application des Sources Historiques (Saint-Barthélemy), John C. Coombs, Katherine Cosby, Jose Curto, Maika Dennis, Marcela, Echeverri, Suzan Eltis, Jorge Felipe, Roquinaldo Ferreira, Manolo Florentino, Charles Foy, David Geggus, Jean-Pierre Le Glaunec, Spencer Gomez, Oscar Grandío Moráguez, Jerome Handler,Robert Harms, John Harris, Candice Harrison, Henk den Heijer, Nick Hibbert Steele, Jane Hooper, Marial Iglesias Utset, Sean Kelley, Willem Klooster, Ruud Koopman, Nancy Kougeas, Robin Law, Paul Lokken, Janaína Perrayon Lopes, Emma Los, Pedro Machado, Leonardo Marques, Antonio de Almeida Mendes, María de los Ángeles Meriño Fuentes, Greg O'Malley, Cláudia Paixão, Aisnara Perera Diaz, David Pettee, Johannes Postma, Fabrício Prado, James Pritchard, Nicholas Radburn, Vanessa Ramos, Alexandre Vieira Ribeiro, Justin Roberts, Carlos da Silva, Luana Teixeira, Jelmer Vos, Lorena Walsh, Andrea Weindl, Rik van Welie, David Wheat
^Juan Ruiz-de-Medina (ed.). Documentos del Japón, 2 Vol. Rome: Instituto Histórico de la Compañía de Jesús, 1990-1995. I, p.216
^WESTBROOK, Raymond. “Vitae Necisque Potestas”. In: Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 48,H. 2 (2nd quarter, 1999). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1999, p. 203
^MIZUKAMI Ikkyū. Chūsei no Shōen to Shakai. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 1969.
^ abcdefJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 146
^António da Silva Rêgo. Documentação para a história das Missões do Padroado Português do Oriente: Índia. Lisboa: Agência Geral das Colónias, 1947-1958 (Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, Fundação Oriente, 1995), Vol. 10, pp. 386-8
^Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, pp. 352-353, "Rescuing people condemned to death could result in tolerable slavery, but the condemnation had to be unjust—a conclusion evocative of the Mediterranean and Atlantic doctrine of rescate. In that case, a Christian could offer a fair ransom and, since no one should be forced to give his or her money for free, the benefactor could hold the rescued person in exchange as their servant, especially when some spiritual good came as a result of such transaction"
^Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, pp. 353-354
^Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, p. 354,"Similar argument was made in the discussion of the case of women who had fled their fathers or husbands and sought shelter in the local lord’s house. While Japanese custom accepted that these women could be trans- formed into genin by the lord, the Goa theologians established that they could be considered enslaved only when they had been accused of and condemned for a crime. Otherwise, missionaries should campaign for their liberation in advising Japanese Christians through
confession."
^ abJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 86, "Oliveira states that not all non-Christians could become objects of a just war. He declares that Christians could not declare war against those who were never Christians themselves, and who did not take territories from Christians or performed any detrimental act against Christianity. In this group, Oliveira includes Jews, Muslims and gentiles who never heard of Christ, and who should not be converted by force, but rather be persuaded to conversion, via example and justice. He goes on to classify as tyranny the act of taking their lands, capture their possessions and any aggression against those who do not proffer any blasphemy against Christ or do not resist to their own evangelization261. In effect, Oliveira distinguishes non-Christians from Northern Africa from those of other areas, such as India, thus pragmatically arguing that wars were just only against those who in fact occupied formerly Christian territories262."
^ abJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 86-87, "Traditionally dated as written in 1556, it compiles the necessary conditions upon which an authority could declare just war against the non-Christians, and more specifically how the Portuguese crown was to deal with the natives in Brazil264....Based on Aristotle and Aquinas, it states that a perfect community had the power necessary to punish those who occupy the community’s territory or make any offense against it267....As for just war, the document repeats there were two main reasons that could justify warfare: to make justice and take back what has been unjustly taken, and to address an offense made against the community. Once more, there is no religious justification, and the argument is entirely political."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 404, "All the Christian daimyō became involved in the conflict because of their subjection to a tyrannical ruler: Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Valignano justifies that they were dragged into war because of the risks that refusing to enter the battlefield represented to the security of their republics. They were good Christians but forced to enter in an unjust war because they were responsible rulers of their kingdoms, according to the Visitor’s justification.126"
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 445, "In Japan there is the universal custom, accepted since ancient times, according to which those who are more powerful attempt to eliminate those of less power, and take over their land and put under their dominion. Because of this [custom], we can hardly find true and natural lords in Japan.1400"
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 444-445, "According to it, analysis of Japanese practices using European civil and canonical law results in a fruitless effort, and all Japanese lords would be taken as illegitimate according to any legal principle. Because of the custom of overtaking militarly lands without following European notions of just war, it was impossible to find “ueri et naturales domini” [legitimate and natural lords]. It is interesting to notice that the missionaries concluded that even natural law was useless to justify Japanese military territorial conquests. They also suggest that, because of the political structure of Japanese society, no lord could achieve the power of the Emperor, here referred as the descendant of the first king of Japan, and which he understands to be the only legitimate land owner in the archipelago."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 445, "The issue raised by the questionnaire is whether land possessions could be retained in good conscience. Of course, its concern with the conscience of the lord means that the missionaries were in reality worried with local Christian lords and their territorial conquests – whether converts could be forgiven for conquering land militarily or if they should be admonished to return these. In fact, it warns that any attempt to make them restitute an illegitimate conquest would fail, as they themselves considered these to be legitimately owned and conquered. The problem, thus, is whether Jesuits should dissimulate and pretend to ignore this issue."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 450, "If the missionaries were to advice local lords on matters of war, considering they were following their customs and, therefore, acting in good faith, the only option for the Jesuits was to act deceitfully, avoid the issue and offer non-answers that could not compromise their mission and the souls and consciences of Japanese Christians. The main problem here to the Japan Jesuits was the control they exerted on the level of knowledge Japanese converts had regarding Christian doctrine. If the priests spoke freely about all religious matters, they would create a situation of conflict between local Japanese customs and Christian dogmas."
^ abcJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 522-523, "The Spanish jurist thus registers that the enslavement of Japanese and Chinese was admitted as far as it was temporary, and that their servitude was fundamentally different from perpetual slavery. This difference is reinforced by the wording of his Latin text: while Asian slavery is called iustae captivitas, Japanese and Chinese servitude is expressly referred as temporali famulitium, temporal servitude. These were not people enslaved as a result of captivity in war, nor were to be understood as common slaves...Also, the legitimacy of these servants is provided by the understanding that local customs and laws were just according to European standards. This shows a line of interpretation close to what Valignano defended until 1598 in his idea of Japanese slavery’s tolerability."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 146
^ abcdeJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 473, "Next, Cerqueira deals with the issue of voluntary servitude, which here most probably refers to the practice of nenkihōkō 年季奉公 in Japan. The bishop makes it clear that the Japanese fulfilled all the conditions prescribed by moral theology for voluntary servitude, as for example the six points defined by Silvestre Mazzolini.1446"
^ ab Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 148, "The fourth enslavement method declared legitimate by the Synod in Goa was when a father who, forced by extreme necessity, had to sell his children as slaves."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 472, "Cerqueira said that these parents would be led to subject their children to slavery because they could not pay taxes demanded by non-Christian Japanese lords. However, the problem he had in Japan was that gentile rulers were creating this situation...On the other hand, the problem of definition of necessity also permeates this discussion. Cerqueira indicates that some children were sold not out of extreme necessity, but rather of great necessity. The issue here is relativism: given the local living standards, the Japanese were supposedly able to live in conditions that could be deemed extreme in other areas but were rather ordinary in the archipelago"
^Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, p. 354, "The same suggestion was repeated in other cases. For instance, those who offered themselves to work in exchange for protection during events like famines and natural disasters were often considered genin in Japanese society, but confessors were to admonish penitents that they should free these genin upon the completion of enough labour to pay for the amount of food, clothing, and shelter provided."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 146
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 60, "Following the work of Gratian, Raymond of Peñafort was one of the major influences on ecclesiastical philosophy in the thirteenth century. Compiler of the Decretals of Gregory IX, Peñafort authored the Summa de casibus poenitentiae, a pioneer confessionary manual. He was an heir of the long discussion regarding the conflict between Christians and Muslims, and his work would influence the later discussion of trade with enemies of Christ. Peñafort considered that servants could become so by two ways: by birth from a mother slave, or by commercial transaction, as when one slave was bought. If the slave was baptized, he would be freed. He dedicates special attention to the intricacies concerning the passage of control – dominium – between Christians, Saracens, Jews and pagans, by repeatedly stating that Christians were not to be subjugated to anyone’s dominium154. "
^University of Santo Tomás, Manila, Archivo de la Provincia del Santo Rosário [hereafter APSR], Consultas 2,Japón 2, Miscelanea, vol. 1, 323v–4, 325.
^Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, pp. 352-353, "Nevertheless, the authority of the Ritsuryō was always on the minds of early modern Japanese. In 1587, when a group of Japanese visiting Manila was questioned on bondage practices in their country, their response to the fate of genin children replicated the model established by the code.5"
^OKA Mihoko. “Kirishitan to Tōitsu Seiken.” In: ŌTSU Tōru et alii. Iwanami Kōza Nihon Rekishi Dai 10 Kan, Kinsei 1. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 2014, pp. 185-187
^GARCÍA-AÑOVEROS, Jesús. Op. cit., p. 85. See also Partida 4, 21, 1. MOLINA, Luis de. De Iustitia et Iure… t. I, tract. II, disp. 33, nn. 15-20.
^ abcdefJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 147, "According to the fourth Partida, anyone could sell him or herself into slavery if: 1) he or she freely agreed with being enslaved; 2) he or she received part of the agreed price; 3) the individual was aware of his or her own freedom;
4) the buyer believed the servile condition of the enslaved individual; and 5) the sold person was 20 or more years old45"
^ abJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 473-474, "Cerqueira indicates other failures of the Japanese voluntary servitude system: some would not receive any share of the price paid for their services, which was against the precepts of moral theology; others sold themselves into servitude because were not able to be hired in exchange of wages by the Portuguese, wishing only to pass to Macao. As result of these devious practices, Cerqueira declares that many Portuguese would not buy slaves in the same amount they did before."
^PÉREZ, Lorenzo. Fr. Jerónimo de Jesús: Restaurador de las Misiones del Japón – sus cartas y relaciones (1595-1604). Florence: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1929, p. 47.
^OKAMOTO Yoshitomo. Jūroku Seiki Nichiō Kōtsūshi no Kenkyū. Tokyo: Kōbunsō, 1936 (revised edition by Rokkō Shobō, 1942 and 1944, and reprint by Hara Shobō, 1969, 1974 and 1980). pp. 730-2
^Joaquim Heliodoro da Cunha Rivara. Archivo Portuguez Oriental – 6 fasc. Em 10 vol.. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services, 1992) Fasc. 5 p. 1, pp. 52-3.
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 94
^Bartolomé de Las Casas’ The Only Way: A Postcolonial Reading of At-One-Ment for Mission, Dale Ann Gray, 2018, Phd Thesis, p.136, p.147, p.153 "Sublimis Deus was Pope Paul III’s declaration of the full humanity of all peoples of the world(世界のすべての人々の完全な人間性の宣言). It was his response to the first edition of The Only Way, carried to Rome by Minaya in 1537, and according to Parish, was chapter and verse delineated by Las Casas (Parish, “Introduction” in TOW)."
^BARTOLOMÉ DE LAS CASAS AND THE QUESTION OF EVANGELIZATION, Hartono Budi, Jurnal Teologi, Vol. 02, No. 01, Mei 2013, hlm. 49-57, The Only Way was so convincing that even Pope Paul III was encouraged to issue a papal bull Sublimis Deus in 1537 which was adopting deliberately all principles of the The Only Way, not just for the Indians of the New World, but for all the peoples to be discovered in the future.(新世界のインディアンだけでなく、将来発見されるすべての人々のため)
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, pp. 132-133 p.28, "Al iniciarse la colonización del archipiélago, la Corona, al igual que en sus otros territorios, tuvo que enfrentar la cuestión de la esclavitud indígena. Nuevamente la experiencia americana sirvió como precedente para definir el curso a seguir. Recordemos que las Leyes Nuevas de 1542 promulgadas por Carlos V, ordenaban que por ninguna causa se podía esclavizar a los indios y que se les tratara como vasallos de la Corona de Castilla. También disponían que los indios que ya se hubieren hecho esclavos se liberaran en caso de que sus dueños no mostrasen títulos legítimos de posesión; asimismo, las Leyes ordenaban que las Audiencias nombraran personas encargadas de asistir a los indios en su liberación.61"
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, pp.138-139, "El “indio chino” ocupó un lugar ambiguo en la sociedad novohispana. El hecho de que era originario de las Indias, y por lo tanto indio, pero no natural del suelo americano, creó confusión en la sociedad y en las autoridades novohispanas....En ocasiones quedaba claro que jurídicamente hablando el oriental era considerado indio."
^OKAMOTO Yoshitomo. Jūroku Seiki Nichiō Kōtsūshi no Kenkyū. Tokyo: Kōbunsō, 1936 (revised edition by Rokkō Shobō, 1942 and 1944, and reprint by Hara Shobō, 1969, 1974 and 1980). pp. 728-730
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 207, "It is noteworthy that the 1570/1571 charter must not have been the first legal attempt to curb Japanese slavery. The Jesuit Pedro Boaventura, writing in 1567, mentions that there were laws in India forbidding merchants to trade slaves from the Prester John, China and Japan."
^ この記述にはパブリックドメインである次の百科事典本文を含む: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1910). "Pope Gregory XIV". Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company., "In a decree, dated 18 April, 1591, he ordered reparation to be made to the Indians of the Philippines by their conquerors wherever it was possible, and commanded under pain of excommunication that all Indian slaves in the islands should be set free. "
^Dias, Maria Suzette Fernandes (2007), Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, p. 238, ISBN 978-1-84718-111-4, p. 71
^In 1605, King Philip III decreed that Japanese slaves living in Goa and Cochin were to be allowed “to seek justice if they claim their captivity is illegal and lacks legitimate title.” Thomas Nelson, “Slavery in Medieval Japan,” Monumenta Nipponica59, no. 4 (2004): 464.
^Seijas T. Catarina de San Juan: China Slave and Popular Saint. In: Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians. Cambridge Latin American Studies. Cambridge University Press; 2014:8-31. p. 16
^ abJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 96, "However, Black African slaves had an overall cost that was cheaper than Indian slaves. The routes from Africa to Portugal were shorter, there were already established network of slave trade from Africa to the Atlantic Islands and Southern Portugal by the beginning of the sixteenth century, and supply sources in the African continent interested in selling humans. Thus, large supplies of slaves from Africa were available not only by a less money, but in a shorter time span. The sector was completely free for private enterprises, though, as long as the interested privateer was able to cover the forbidding costs of preparing a private ship for a round-trip between Lisbon and India after lobbying for a royal permit."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 96-97, "The inter-Asian market for slaves was certainly limited though: as far as we know, there were no Portuguese-owned large plantations in any of the Asian overseas Portuguese territories during the first half of the sixteenth century, thus there were no big single consumers of human chattel in the region – the market was seemingly restricted to domestic slavery."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 97, "Differently than the slave trade, spice trade conferred not only social status, but very large profits."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 96, "The sector was completely free for private enterprises, though, as long as the interested privateer was able to cover the forbidding costs of preparing a private ship for a round-trip between Lisbon and India after lobbying for a royal permit. As a result, those Asian slaves that ended up in Europe did so for a variety of reasons, such as domestic servants, specialized artisans, or elements brought to add up to their master’s honor and social status. But none were because of large scale slave trade between Asia and Portugal or in order to respond to demanding plantations owners in Southern Portugal, the Atlantic Islands or South America."
^ abAsian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians, Tatiana Seijas, Cambridge University Press, 2014, DOI:https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107477841, p.251 "Chino Slaves with Identifiable Origins All 225 Spanish Philippines1 62 Muslim Philippines2 17 India3 68 Bengal [Bangladesh and India] 30 Ambon, Borneo, Java, Makassar, Maluku Islands [Indonesia] 15 Melaka, Malay [Malaysia] 9 Ceylon [Sri Lanka] 6 Japan 4 Macau [China] 3 Timor 2 Unrecognizable4 9 Note: My database for this study consists of 598 chino slaves. Of these, only 225 cases involved individuals whose place of origin was identified in the surviving documentation."
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p. 119
^ abcdeDéborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p. 126
^ abcDéborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p. 68
^ abcDéborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p. 111
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p.131, "Por otro lado, entraron también a la Nueva España algunos esclavos indios de Filipinas, pero como vasallos de la Corona, no debió permitirse dicha condición. Se ha sugerido que fueron los musulmanes del sur del archipiélago quienes ingresaron a la Nueva España como esclavos"
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, pp. 121-125
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p. 73
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p. 128, "La participación de “indios chinos” en el comercio no sólo se limitaba a la ciudad de México. Mencionamos anteriormente el caso de Domingo de Villalobos, indio pampango, quien comerciaba en la región de Tuspa y Colima. Asimismo, Catalina de Bastidos, “japona”, llegó a la Nueva España como esclava, pero después de conseguir su libertad al contraer nupcias con un portugués, abrió una tienda en Tlaxcala, donde vendía lana.371"
^ abDéborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p. 113
^ abBARCELOS, CHRISTIANO SENNA, Construction of Naus in Lisbon and Goa for the India Route, Boletim da Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa, 17a, série no1. 1898-99
^Decline of the Portuguese naval power: A study based on Portuguese documents, Mathew, K.M. (The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads: 1580-1800) Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K.S. Mathew, Ed. By: Pius Malekandathil and Jamal Mohammed Fundacao Oriente, Lisbon. 2001, pp. 331-332
^Reconstructing the Nau from Lavanha’s Manuscript, T Vacas, N Fonseca, T Santos, F Castro, nautical research journal, 2010, p.25
^Menéndez: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Captain General of the Ocean Sea Albert C. Manucy, published 1992 by Pineapple Press, Inc, p.100, "The galleon evolved in response to Spain's need for an ocean-crossing cargo ship that could beat off corsairs. Pedro de Menéndez, along with Álvaro de Bazán (hero of Lepanto), is credited with developing the prototypes which had the long hull – and sometimes the oars – of a galley married to the poop and prow of a nao or merchantman. Galeones were classed as 1-, 2- or 3-deckers, and stepped two or more masts rigged with square sails and topsails (except for a lateen sail on the mizzenmast). Capacity ranged up to 900 tons or more. Menéndez' San Pelayo of 1565 was a 900 ton galleon which was also called a nao and galeaza. She carried 77 crewmen, 18 gunners, transported 317 soldiers and 26 families, as well as provisions and cargo. Her armament was iron."
^Guillaume Carré, « Lúcio de Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan. Merchants, Jesuits and Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Slaves », Esclavages & Post-esclavages (En ligne), 4 | 2021, mis en ligne le 10 mai 2021, consulté le 26 août 2024. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/slaveries/3641 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/slaveries.3641, "Il tente de décrire les divers acteurs du trafic, comme les fournisseurs locaux d’esclaves, mais il ne peut écrire grand chose sur ces Japonais ou ces Chinois partenaires en affaires des Portugais qui demeurent très mal connus, tant les sources qu’il utilise restent peu loquaces à leur sujet. Il tente aussi d’évaluer quelles pouvaient être les capacités de chargement en esclaves des navires européens, dans une comparaison implicite avec la traite atlantique ; mais là encore, les résultats, faute de renseignements suffisamment précis et substantiels, s’avèrent plutôt nébuleux ou peu probants. Les données parcellaires recueillies par l’auteur ne permettent pas de reconstruire des estimations chiffrées fiables, ce qui n’ôte d’ailleurs rien à l’intérêt de sa recherche, qui se penche aussi sur l’implication de la société de Jésus dans ce commerce et sur sa légitimation, montrant au passage les liens entre asservissement et conversion au christianisme."
^Blumenthal D. Slavery in Medieval Iberia. In: Perry C, Eltis D, Engerman SL, Richardson D, eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Cambridge University Press; 2021, p. 515, "But as we move into the late eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries (the Almoravid and Almohad periods), we see a notable increase in the number of slaves from the “Sudan” or non-Islamized regions of sub-Saharan West Africa being imported into the Muslim-controlled territories in the Iberian Peninsula. Many of these sub-Saharan West African slaves seem to have been employed as slave soldiers and formed separate African infantry units."
^Blumenthal D. Slavery in Medieval Iberia. In: Perry C, Eltis D, Engerman SL, Richardson D, eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Cambridge University Press; 2021, p. 516, "In his fourteenth-century work, the Muqaddimah, the North African Berber historian, Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), offered an even more explicitly “racial” justification for the practice, affirming that “the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery because [Negroes] have little [that is essentially] human and have attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated.”13"
^Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, trans. Franz Rosenthal (Princeton, NJ, 1967), p. 117.
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 71, "José Luis Cortés Lopez writes: [In Spain, the Muslim presence had originated a series of violent clashes with Christian kingdoms, where the figure of the ‘captive’ as the most appreciated spoil by them. This new character by the fact of having been captured in a warlike situation, or considered as such, lose all his individuality and autonomy, thus becoming property of who captured him, so that if he wished he could give him back his freedom by freewill or via a ransom. The captive was, then, strange or foreign person reduced to a state of submission by violent acts, but in no way they were being subjected ‘by nature’ to perpetual slavery, as Aristotle wished to make of some members of society]"
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 70, "In the Iberian Peninsula, the relation of just war to slavery was a process mediated by the constant history of violent clashes during the Reconquista. The doctrine of just war became a necessary political tool for the maintenance of the war against Muslims. Henrique Quinta-Nova wrote that the doctrine represented not only an opposition against Islamic values, but also a great ethic justification for the continuous war that absorbed political dynamics199. "
^ abcJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp.132-133, "Slave trading had very real consequences in terms of military power and capability – more slaves meant more manpower in conflicts. Given the long history up to the 1560s of battles between Muslims and Christians in Asia, unsurprisingly the clergymen at the Council were also concerned about the issue of military power derived from the slave trade. Reaching beyond slave trading networks which nodes ended in Portuguese ports, prelates wished to use the maritime jurisdiction exerted by the Portuguese crown to curtail slave traders who fed markets in adversary areas, namely Muslim ports. Effectively, this decree requests a change of policies in relation to foreign ships navigating in Portuguese-controlled waters, requiring that slaves should not be sent to Muslim areas. "
^An Economic History of Portugal, 1143–2010, Leonor Freire Costa, Universidade de Lisboa, Pedro Lains, Universidade de Lisboa, Susana Münch Miranda, Universiteit Leiden, Cambridge University Press, 2016, p. 27, "In the case of Portugal, the shift to peasant tenure can be traced back to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. As the Reconquista brought new lands to be ploughed and since there were no restrictions to peasant mobility, the high land–labor ratio of a frontier economy was not exclusive to the southern part of the kingdom.9 Hence, as labor was scarce relative to land, slavery and serfdom were already waning in the thirteenth century. By then, ecclesiastic and lay lords fragmented their reserves, called quintas or granjas, into smaller farming plots and leased them out to peasant families. From north to south in the kingdom, the so-called casal (pl. casais) formed as the major unit for land occupation, farm labor, and taxation. The casal was mostly a small-scale production unit, drawing upon the domestic household for labor and often comprising a dwelling and several plots of land, devoted to a variety of crops in order to provide the needs of the peasant family.10"
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 76-77, "In the Guimarães Courts, held in 1401, D. João listens to farmers who complain that, because of labor shortage, they could lose their vineyards and crops, and those few servants they already had were constantly lured by others to leave their masters in exchange for better wages...By the turn of the century, the crisis regarding labor and the need of manpower for sugarcane plantations in Southern Portugal became a factor behind the first period of Portuguese maritime expansion. 219 Since the beginning of the 1400s, sugar had become an important piece of the regional economy, and since the 1440s the Atlantic islands were also included in this industry. Slavery was then the best alternative to supply these crops with labor, thus in 1441 the first ship with captives from the Saharan seacoast arrived.220 With Muslim captives from the wars in Africa arriving in Portugal, the legislation started."
^Robin Churchill, Portugal and the Development of the Law of the Sea in Western Europe, Portuguese Yearbook of the Law of the Sea 1 (2024) 12–25, p. 15, "Beginning with the capture from the Muslims of the town of Ceuta, situated at the northern tip of Morocco, in 1415, the Portuguese gradually worked their way southwards along the Atlantic seaboard of Africa."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 70 "This language of war was not coincidental. Slaves in Spanish kingdoms and Portugal were the product of the Reconquista and its battles – these idioms would affect the relation between slavery and royal regulation, as well as theology and justification of slavery over the centuries. In the 1400s and 1500s, the favored term for buying a slave was resgatar – to rescue, in a clear reference to the rescue of captives victims of the war between Christianity and Islam201 . Although the language of war in the discourse of slavery, which would be used to equate captive to slave, was not immediately adopted in fifteenth century Iberia, the sixteenth century would be marked by a continuous indistinctness between the two words202."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 156, "The Vice-Roy confirms that, from that point on, all licenses should forbid non-Christian (the law specifically mentions Moors) merchants to carry non-Christian slaves. All those who do so should sell these slaves in Portuguese fortresses to Christian buyers. If these Christians could not buy the slaves, then non-Christians subjected to the Portuguese crown could buy them. It also stipulated a fine of 10 pardaos for transgressors. It also forbade infidel vassals to the Portuguese king to sell slaves to other areas controlled by non-Christian rulers, instead demanding that the slaves should be sold to Christians487."
^Malyn Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668, Routledge, 2005, pp. 23-24, "In 1442 a cargo ofslaves was brought back by a ship that had been cruising off the Saharan coast and the sale of these slaves in Lisbon caused something of a sensation. As Zurara says, ‘when these people saw the wealth which the ships had brought back, acquired in so short a time, and seemingly with such ease, some asked themselves in what manner they too could acquire a share of these profits’.67
^Raiswell, Richard. "Nicholas V, Papal Bulls of", The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, Junius P. Rodriguez ed., ABC-CLIO, 1997、 ISBN9780874368857
^An Economic History of Portugal, 1143–2010, Leonor Freire Costa, Pedro Lains, Universidade de Lisboa, Susana Münch Miranda, Cambridge University Press, May 2016, p. 24
^Malyn Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668, Routledge, 2005, p. 24, "By 1445 the slaving ships had reached the southern limits of the Sahara and were beginning to make contact with the black kingdoms of Senegambia. Here the Portuguese found relatively dense populations which pursued settled agriculture, unlike the pastoral nomads and fishermen of the Saharan coasts."
^Malyn Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668, Routledge, 2005, p. 24, "In 1444 Henrique, who had been made governor of the Algarve, organised a consortium in Lagos to send ships to West Africa, and sometime after 1445 he established a permanent trading post on the island of Arguim off the coast of modern Mauritania. Here the Portuguese were able to buy slaves and gold in exchange for wheat, salt, cloth and horses—commodities much in demand among the peoples of the Sahara and the Niger.
^Rui Oliveira Lopes (27 May 2024): Power and devotion in the art of the Catholic missions in Asia during the Early Modern period, Culture and Religion, DOI:10.1080/14755610.2024.2354723, p. 4, "The construction of a Christian utopia took shape through the papal bull Dum Diversas issued on 18 June 1452 by Pope Nicholas V, less than a year before the fall of Constantinople to the hands of the Muslim Turk Ottoman armies. It seems that if the crusading ideal of the Portuguese kings against the Saracens was not the primary motivation for the military campaigns in North Africa, it became a sine qua non of the Papal support to the Portuguese claims over the political authority and, above all, control of commerce in those territories."
^Malyn Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668, Routledge, 2005, pp. 27-28
^Rui Oliveira Lopes (27 May 2024): Power and devotion in the art of the Catholic missions in Asia during the Early Modern period, Culture and Religion, DOI:10.1080/14755610.2024.2354723, p. 4, "Despite the political and military authority given by the Vatican to the Portuguese in these newly ‘found’ territories, we know today that the Portuguese maritime empire was not a territorial empire (Thomaz 1992). It was instead a territorial presence to ensure the control of a global trade network and circulation of knowledge between Europe and Asia and within Asia itself."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 132, "Slave trading had very real consequences in terms of military power and capability – more slaves meant more manpower in conflicts. Given the long history up to the 1560s of battles between Muslims and Christians in Asia, unsurprisingly the clergymen at the Council were also concerned about the issue of military power derived from the slave trade. Reaching beyond slave trading networks which nodes ended in Portuguese ports, prelates wished to use the maritime jurisdiction exerted by the Portuguese crown to curtail slave traders who fed markets in adversary areas, namely Muslim ports. Effectively, this decree requests a change of policies in relation to foreign ships navigating in Portuguese-controlled waters, requiring that slaves should not be sent to Muslim areas. Monitoring should be entrusted to Portuguese captains and justice officials, while whatever Christians embarked in these ships should denounce human cargo addressed to ports other than Portuguese settlements. Moreover, it confirms the previous disposition, by determining that slaves sold in Portuguese fortresses and ports must be bought by Christians, and whenever it was not possible, by infidels loyal to the Portuguese crown. But, under no circumstances, slaves should be allowed to pass to areas where they could contribute to strengthen ranks of Muslim armies."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 96, "As seen by the last provision mentioned above, it was encouraged even, as the enslavement of Moors would work as a means of protection to the royal monopoly over the spice trade. "
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 89, "By the end, the author adds a third cause for just war: intention. The acts of Portuguese crown in the conquest of Northern Africa and India were based on the idea of expulsion of Muslims, restitution of former Christian areas to Christianity and, overall, evangelization. 276"
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 79, "However, just war was not the only way captive servants could be acquired in the fifteenth century. Book 4, title CXI, enacted in 1452, mentions that captive Moors were normally taken by the Portuguese, or brought to them, or bought from other Moors – “Mouros cativos, que per os nossos naturaes erom tomados, ou a elles trazidos, ou delles comprados”. The same law defines that these servants were to be kept until their price was paid, or a Christian captive in Moorish lands (“terra de Mouros”) was rescued in exchange for the captive. The dynamics of religious war was still very present in the labor relations established between Portuguese and foreign captive elements. Interestingly, this law also forbids the temporary servitude of captive Moors, as it does not allow them to be freed after a determined period of service231."
^ abDéborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p.131, "Por otro lado, entraron también a la Nueva España algunos esclavos indios de Filipinas, pero como vasallos de la Corona, no debió permitirse dicha condición."
^ abDéborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, pp.138-139, "El “indio chino” ocupó un lugar ambiguo en la sociedad novohispana. El hecho de que era originario de las Indias, y por lo tanto indio, pero no natural del suelo americano, creó confusión en la sociedad y en las autoridades novohispanas....En ocasiones quedaba claro que jurídicamente hablando el oriental era considerado indio."
^ abcJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 84, "Nevertheless, on both sides of the Iberian Peninsula of the 1500s the legitimacy of slavery will be questioned not as a whole institution, but in regard to specific peoples."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 84, "Also, while the Spanish considered that Native Americans were, by right of conquest, subjects to the Spanish crown, Black Africans were not subjects to the Portuguese king, but to African kings, thus were not protected by the Portuguese crown. These differences turned slavery into an issue pertaining to two very distinct spheres: in Spain, it was a problem of global policy, while in Portugal it was restricted to a moral and confessional challenge.252"
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 86, "In effect, Oliveira distinguishes non-Christians from Northern Africa from those of other areas, such as India, thus pragmatically arguing that wars were just only against those who in fact occupied formerly Christian territories262"
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 89, "The author ends his exposition by reiterating that the justice of the Portuguese conquest resided in the procedural policies in place during the military campaigns overseas, not on the word of Papal bulls. These bulls were to be seen as: regulatory documents concerning the usage of capitals obtained from tithes; permit to use some of the trading practices forbidden by canonical law – a possible reference to the trade with the so-called enemies of Christ; and regulations in regard to the construction of churches and to other spiritual matters.277"
^ abcdJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 494-504
^ abcdElits, David. "The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database: Origins, Development, Content." Journal of Slavery and Data Preservation 2, no. 3 (2021): 1-8. https://doi.org/10.25971/R9H6-QX59., "Historians, economists, literary scholars, sociologists, anthropologists, political scientists, religious studies scholars, and musicologists have all cited TSTD. In the words of a recent paper in the peer-reviewed journal Rationality and Society, “Nearly all historical assessments of the trade written after the database’s release have used this quantitative data, and its reliability is well established in the literature."
^ abcdeJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan、Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, p.40-47
^OROPEZA KERESEY, Deborah. Los ‘indios chinos’ en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700. Thesis presented at the Colegio de Mexico, A.C., 2007
^SEIJAS, Tatiana. Transpacific Servitude: the Asian Slaves of Mexico, 1580-1700. Doctoral dissertation presented to Yale University, 2008. The thesis was later published in book form: SEIJAS, Tatiana. Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014
^BOXER, Charles R. Fidalgos in the Far East (1550-1771). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1948, p. 234
^MAKI Hidemasa. Jinshin Baibai. Tokyo: Iwanami Shinsho, 1971, pp. 53-74
^FUJIKI Hisashi. Zōhyōtachi no Senjō: Chūsei no Yōhei to Doreigari. Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1995 (new edition in 2005).
^Lúcio de SOUSA, The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan. Merchants, Jesuits and Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Slaves, Leiden / Boston, Brill, 2019, ISBN 978-90-04-36580-3
^Human Trafficking and Piracy in Early Modern East Asia: Maritime Challenges to the Ming Dynasty Economy, 1370–1565, Harriet Zurndorfer, Comparative Studies in Society and History (2023), 1–24 doi:10.1017/S0010417523000270
^(書評)The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan: Merchants, Jesuits and Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Slaves, written by Lúcio De Sousa, Harriet Zurndorfer, Journal of early modern history, 2020, pp. 181-195, "This is a deeply unsatisfactory book. The author has a penchant for writing in the first-person plural, which results in an almost child-like storytelling mode of exposition, peppered with a certain conspiratorial tone, rather than giving a systematic and intelligible analysis of the data. Much data cannot be verified because the author does not offer the exact references from where the information may be found, and thus his claims may raise suspicion. The feeble narrative cannot absorb the anecdotal, curiously pompous details of testimonies, remarks, and judgements of the Portuguese rapporteurs.
^Guillaume Carré, « Lúcio de Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan. Merchants, Jesuits and Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Slaves », Esclavages & Post-esclavages (En ligne), 4 | 2021, mis en ligne le 10 mai 2021, consulté le 26 août 2024. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/slaveries/3641 ; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/slaveries.3641, "En revanche, on peut regretter que, se focalisant sur des sources primaires, mais aussi secondaires, en langue occidentale, l’auteur n’ait pas plus exploité les résultats d’une recherche japonaise déjà longue, sur les pratiques esclavagistes dans l’archipel ou à ses marges à la fin de la période médiévale et au XVIIe siècle. Il en cite pourtant certains représentants dans sa bibliographie : on y lit ainsi le nom de Murai Shōsuke, qui a étudié cette question dans le cadre de la piraterie japonaise, mais on s’étonne de ne pas trouver plus de mentions de travaux sur l’asservissement et la vente de captifs lors des guerres féodales dans l’archipel (comme ceux de Fujiki Hisashi, par exemple). L’auteur reste allusif sur ces pratiques locales ; pourtant, les exposer plus précisément aurait permis aux lecteurs peu au fait de l’histoire sociale japonaise, de se familiariser avec un contexte insulaire initial où la vente des êtres humains ne semble pas avoir été rare, et où les relations de dépendance et de sujétion se distinguaient souvent mal de la servitude, avant que l’emploi salarié et la domesticité à gage ne prennent leur essor sous les Tokugawa : bref des conditions qui, jointes à l’anarchie politique, offraient aux trafiquants d’esclaves portugais un terreau favorable pour leurs affaires. "
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan、Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, p.218, p.493
^Richard B. Allen, European Slave Trading in Asia, 1500–1850 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2014)
^ Chevaleyre, Claude. "Beyond Maritime Asia. Ideology, Historiography, and Prospects for a Global History of Slaving in Early-Modern Asia". Slavery and Bondage in Asia, 1550–1850: Towards a Global History of Coerced Labour, edited by Kate Ekama, Lisa Hellman and Matthias van Rossum, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2022, pp. 31-48. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110777246-003, p.31
^Richard B. Allen, Renaissance Quarterly 74, 2 (2021): 611–12; doi:10.1017/rqx.2021.31, p. 612
^Silva Ehalt, Rômulo da. "Suspicion and Repression: Ming China, Tokugawa Japan, and the End of the Japanese-European Slave Trade (1614–1635)". Slavery and Bondage in Asia, 1550–1850: Towards a Global History of Coerced Labour, edited by Kate Ekama, Lisa Hellman and Matthias van Rossum, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2022, pp. 213-230. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110777246-012, p.215, "Despite showing the continuity of Japanese slavery, Sousa insists on the importance of the 1607 Portuguese law for the end of the trade. Lúcio de Sousa, Escravatura e Diáspora Japonesa nos Séculos XVI e XVII (Braga: NICPRI, 2014): 156–61; Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade: 426, 538, 542. As for numbers, for instance, the presence of Japanese individuals in Mexico City seems to have increased sharply after 1617, while records of Asians spread throughout the world suggest that there were enslaved or formerly enslaved Japanese in the Americas until the late seventeenth century. Out of the 35 Japanese Oropeza Keresey lists as living in Mexico City in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, only four arrived prior to 1617. Sousa’s lists of 28 Japanese individuals spread around the globe between 1599 and 1642, which he claims to have been enslaved, suggests a similar pattern. Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade: 210–59; Deborah Oropeza Keresey, “Los ‘indios chinos’ en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565–1700” (PhD diss., El Colégio de México, 2007): 257–91"
^ abBoxer, Charles Ralph (1968). Fidalgos on the Far-East 1550-1770. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780196380742.p16
^"Urushi once attracted the world". Urushi Nation Joboji. Archived from the original on 25 December 2019.
^ abOKAMOTO Yoshitomo. Jūroku Seiki Nichiō Kōtsūshi no Kenkyū. Tokyo: Kōbunsō, 1936 (revised edition by Rokkō Shobō, 1942 and 1944, and reprint by Hara Shobō, 1969, 1974 and 1980). pp. 728-730
^ abcSlavery in Medieval Japan, Slavery in Medieval Japan, Thomas Nelson, Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 59, No. 4 (Winter, 2004), pp. 463-492, "As early as 1555, complaints were made by the Church that Portuguese merchants were taking Japaense slave girls with them back to Portugal and living with them there in sin....Political disunity in Japan, however, together with the difficulty that the Portuguese Crown faced in enforcing its will in the distant Indies, the ready availability of human merchandise, and the profits to be made from the trade meant that the chances were negligible of such a ban actually being enforced. In 1603 and 1605, the citizens of Goa protested against the law, claiming that it was wrong to ban the traffic in slaves who had been legally bought. Eventually, in 1605, King Philip of Spain and Portugal issued a document that was a masterpiece of obfuscation intended both to pacify his critics in Goa demanding the right to take Japanese slaves and the Jesuits, who insisted that the practice be banned."
^MATSUDA Kiichi. Tenshō Ken’ō Shisetsu. Tokyo: Chōbunsha, 1991, pp. 274-5
^ abJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 496-497 "If that is the case, the king had then sent copies of the same order to India at least three times: in 1603, when Aires de Saldanha published it, in 1604, with Martim Afonso de Castro, and in 1605."
^ abCOSTA, João Paulo Oliveira e. O Cristianismo no Japão e o Episcopado de D. Luís Cerqueira. PhD thesis. Lisbon: Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 1998, p. 312. Sousa indicates the same letters, but he mistakenly attributed them to Filipe II, Filipe III’s father. See SOUSA, Lúcio de. Escravatura e Diáspora Japonesa nos séculos XVI e XVII. Braga: NICPRI, 2014, p. 298.
^ abJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 493
^ abJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 19-20
^Sandakan Brothel No.8: Journey into the History of Lower-class Japanese Women By Tomoko Yamazaki, Karen F. Colligan-Taylor p.xv
^Harald Fischer-Tiné (2003). “'White women degrading themselves to the lowest depths': European networks of prostitution and colonial anxieties in British India and Ceylon ca. 1880–1914”. Indian Economic and Social History Review40 (2): 163–90 [175–81]. doi:10.1177/001946460304000202.
^ abRômulo da Silva Ehalt, Jesuit Arguments for Voluntary Slavery in Japan and Brazil, Brazilian Journal of History, Volume: 39, Number: 80, Jan-Apr. 2019., p.10
^BRAH, Cortes 566 (9/2666), maço 21, f. 275. RUIZ DE MEDINA, Juan G. Orígenes de la Iglesia Catolica Coreana desde 1566 hasta 1784 según documentos inéditos de la época. Rome: Institutum Historicum S.I., 1986, p. 114-22.
^Servitutem Levem et Modici Temporis Esse Arbitrantes: Jesuit Schedulae & Japanese Limited-Term Servitude in Gomes Vaz’s De mancipiis Indicis, Stuart M. McManus, BPJS, 2018, II, 4, 77-99
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan、Rômulo da Silva Ehalt、p. 426
^BRAH, Cortes 566 (9/2666), maço 21, f. 273-276v. Pagès in PAGÈS, Léon. Histoire de la religion chrétienne au Japon – Seconde Partie, Annexes. Paris: Charles Douniol, 1870, p. 70-9. SOUSA, Lúcio de. “Dom Luís de Cerqueira e a escravatura no Japão em 1598.” Brotéria, 165. Braga, 2007, pp. 245-61.
^ abcTeixeira Leite 1999, p. 20: "Já por aí se vê que devem ter sido numerosos os escravos chineses que tomaram o caminho de Lisboa — e por extensão o do Brasil ... Em 1744 era o imperador Qianlong quem ordenava que nenhum Chinês ou europeu de Macau vendesse filhos e filhas, prohibição reiterada em 1750 pelo vice-rei de Cantão."
^Saunders, A.C. De C.M. A social history of black slaves and freedmen in Portugal 1441-1555. New York: University of Cambridge Press, 1982 p.89
^OM, Lib. 4, Tit. XVI; LARA, Silvia Hunold. ‘Legislação sobre escravos africanos na América portuguesa’. in: ANDRÉS-GALLEGO, Jose (Coord). Nuevas Aportaciones a la Historia Jurídica de Iberoamérica. Madrid: Fundación Histórica Tavera/Digibis/Fundación Hernando de Larramendi, 2000 (CD-Rom), p. 57. Tit. XCIX.
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 91
^Northrup, David. Africa’s Discovery of Europe 1450-1850. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Northrup, 2009, p.10
^ abSaunders, A.C. De C.M. A social history of black slaves and freedmen in Portugal 1441-1555. New York: University of Cambridge Press, 1982 p.178
^SOUSA, Lúcio de, and OKA Mihoko. Daikōkai Jidai no Nihonjin Dorei. Tokyo: Chuokoron-Shinsha, 2017.
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 33
^ abJesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 135-138, "At the time of the Goa Synod, the missionary approach based on slave conversion was failing431. Slaves who regained their freedom at the baptismal font would seize the opportunity and run away to Muslim areas, discrediting Christian baptism – the efforts of missionaries translated as a strategy employed by captured Asians to gain freedom...As seen before, even when conceded, baptism was not a guarantee of automatic manumission. It could be a way to reclaim freedom, but only if the enslaved individual was considered a proper Christian. The fate of these baptized slaves, however, was usually enslavement under a Christian household....Properly converted women and young males were freed, but adult males had to be evaluated by the Bishop of Malacca. Those who lacked qualities necessary to be a good Christian were to be sold to good Christian masters that could indoctrinate slaves and raise faithful, loyal converts...The issues dealt in this section of the Goa Council’s minutes are a strong reminder of slavery as a temporary status."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 138, "Furthermore, clergymen envisioned and designed it as a stage before Christianization and social assimilation. This is what Stephen Greenblatt referred as “liberating enslavement”, that is to say, enslavement with a human face, undertaken in the interests of the enslaved 438 . But looking from the perspective of the enslaved individual, it was not only the possibility to free oneself from enslavement – it was a chance to acquire stability as a converted individual, a loyal subject to God and the Portuguese crown, in comparison to the instability represented by life as an infidel outside of the Estado da Índia."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 138, "Conversion, in this sense, must not be understood as a simple change of religious practices and beliefs – it represented a personal rearrangement, certainly social and political, maybe economically speaking.439 One could reconstruct – or refashion – himself not only religiously, but morally and politically following one’s insertion into Portuguese colonial societies via tutelage received in Christian households, thus acquiring new political and social skills."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 138, "If one considers slaves as victims, this process can be seen as involuntary or imposed refashioning. However, if we consider their human capabilities to survive, this was most certainly an example of strategical refashioning. These were not victims resisting overwhelming authority, but people struggling against imposed odds, who saw in conversion a possibility to adapt to the circumstances."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 141, "This decree is a reminder to masters of the obligations they had towards the slave, in other words, slavery itself was envisioned by the clergymen as a relationship where the master should take care of the slave, in benefit of the enslaved individual444. According to ideals of evangelization in Asia, they were supposed to be tutors, mentors to potential Christians, especially in the case of Asia, where slavery was usually limited by a number of servitude years. The decree also gives us details not only on methods of punishment (fire and clubs), but it also indicates when slaves should rest. Resting on Sundays and Holy Days should comprise not only of an exemption from work in the master’s house, but also in a general form. The Synod alerts that masters who insisted on putting their slaves to work would have to explain themselves to God in the afterlife."
^Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 141, "[The Council] commands that from now one no [person] shall punish with fire, nor club, nor any extraordinary punishments, because of the danger there is, and so commands every person that knows of others who punish excessively, to denounce [them] to the Prelate, and [commands also] that no one shall sent your slaves to work on Sundays and Holy Days, nor receive from them money on said days, nor ordering them to pay for things that they lose, or break in the house, because these give them great opportunities to sin."
^ abcDéborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, pp. 132-133, "Asimismo, en 1599 Gaspar Fernández, “natural de las islas del Japón…ladino en lengua castellana” quien había llegado a la Nueva España como parte del secuestro de bienes del portugués Ruy Pérez, abogó por su libertad, argumentando que “soy persona libre hijo de padre y madre libres y no sujeto a servidumbre”. Los testigos del caso, hijos de Ruy Pérez, manifestaron que Gaspar Fernández había sido vendido en Nagasaki a su padre para servirle por tiempo limitado, alrededor de 12 años."
^ abSeijas T. The End of Chino Slavery. In: Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians. Cambridge Latin American Studies. Cambridge University Press; 2014:212-246. p.224-225
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, pp. 132-133 p.28, "Al iniciarse la colonización del archipiélago, la Corona, al igual que en sus otros territorios, tuvo que enfrentar la cuestión de la esclavitud indígena. Nuevamente la experiencia americana sirvió como precedente para definir el curso a seguir. Recordemos que las Leyes Nuevas de 1542 promulgadas por Carlos V, ordenaban que por ninguna causa se podía esclavizar a los indios y que se les tratara como vasallos de la Corona de Castilla. También disponían que los indios que ya se hubieren hecho esclavos se liberaran en caso de que sus dueños no mostrasen títulos legítimos de posesión; asimismo, las Leyes ordenaban que las Audiencias nombraran personas encargadas de asistir a los indios en su liberación.61"
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, pp. 132-133, "A lo cual Fernández objetó que “no hay contra mi probanza ni título que contenga ser esclavo no hay porque se me haga contradicción semejante fuere de que los de mi nación y japones no son esclavos ni por tales se tratan ni contratan en las partes de la India ni en otra alguna ni hay declaración de que hayan ser sujetos a cautiverio, ni habidos de buena guerra que es principal requisito para esclavonía”. Finalmente, en 1604, se declaró la libertad del dicho “japón”.402"
^AGN, Real fisco de la Inquisición, v.8, exp.9, ff.262-271
^Seijas T. The End of Chino Slavery. In: Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians. Cambridge Latin American Studies. Cambridge University Press; 2014:212-246. p.224-225
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, pp. 133-134, "En el proceso se reveló que Mendoza fue uno de los niños llevados a Manila en 1638, cuando se puso sitio a Joló por los conflictos en el sur de Filipinas donde los “indios mahometanos” de Mindanao, Joló y Brunei cautivaban “indios cristianos”. Mendoza pasó a España en 1651 con Corcuera, quien argumentaba que al haber sido cautivados dichos “indios mahometanos” en guerra justa, debían ser esclavos en España. El caso no tiene conclusión, por lo que no sabemos qué ocurrió con el “indio natural de Joló”.404"
^Déborah Oropeza Keresey, Los “indios chinos” en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565-1700, PhD Tesis, 2007, p.135, "En un informe a la reina Mariana de Austria, el fiscal de Haro afirmaba que “en los chinos hay mayor prohibición de esclavitud, por que las Reales Cédulas disponen que todos los indios de aquellas naciones sean tenidos por libres y tratados como vasallos de Vuestra Majestad aunque sean mahometanos y de la demarcación de Portugal por la multiplicidad de naciones que hay en las Islas Filipinas, que el fin de Vuestra Majestad es sólo la propagación de la fe y la esclavitud es el medio contrario…”.411"
^ abde Pina-Cabral 2002, pp. 114–115: "From very early on, it was recognized that the purchase of Chinese persons (particularly female infants) caused no particular problems in Macao, but that the export of these people as slaves was contrary to the safeguarding of peaceable relations with the Chinese authorities. This point is clearly made by a Royal Decree of 1624 ... [t]hese good intentions were, however, difficult to uphold in the territory where the monetary purchase of persons was easily accomplished and the supply very abundant, particularly of young females."