^ 1.01.1Halpern, B.S., Frazier, M., Afflerbach, J. et al. (2019) "Recent pace of change in human impact on the world’s ocean." Scientific Reports, 9: 11609. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-47201-9
^Halpern, B.S., Walbridge, S., Selkoe, K.A., Kappel, C.V., Micheli, F., D'agrosa, C., Bruno, J.F., Casey, K.S., Ebert, C., Fox, H.E. and Fujita, R. (2008) "A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems". Science, 319(5865): 948–952. doi:10.1126/science.1149345
^Sala, E., C.F. Bourdouresque and M. Harmelin-Vivien. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425-439.
^Joan G. Ehrenfeld, Ecosystem Consequences of Biological Invasions, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 2010, 41: 59–80, doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144650
^Molnar, Jennifer L; Gamboa, Rebecca L; Revenga, Carmen; Spalding, Mark D. Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 2008, 6 (9): 485–492. ISSN 1540-9295. doi:10.1890/070064.
^Pimentel, D.; Zuniga, R.; Morrison, D. Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecological Economics. 2005, 52 (3): 273–288. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002.
^Charles Sheppard (编). World seas : an Environmental Evaluation. III, Ecological Issues and Environmental Impacts Second. London. 2019. ISBN 978-0128052044. OCLC 1052566532.
^Breitburg, Denise; Levin, Lisa A.; Oschlies, Andreas; Grégoire, Marilaure; Chavez, Francisco P.; Conley, Daniel J.; Garçon, Véronique; Gilbert, Denis; Gutiérrez, Dimitri; Isensee, Kirsten; Jacinto, Gil S. Declining oxygen in the global ocean and coastal waters. Science. 2018-01-05, 359 (6371): eaam7240. Bibcode:2018Sci...359M7240B. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 29301986. doi:10.1126/science.aam7240(英语).
^US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. What is a dead zone?. oceanservice.noaa.gov. [2021-04-30]. (原始内容存档于2023-02-02) (美国英语).
^Urbanek, A.K., Rymowicz, W. and Mirończuk, A.M. (2018) "Degradation of plastics and plastic-degrading bacteria in cold marine habitats". Applied microbiology and biotechnology, 102(18): 7669–7678. doi:10.1007/s00253-018-9195-y.
^ 42.042.1Charles Sheppard (编). World seas : an Environmental Evaluation. III, Ecological Issues and Environmental Impacts Second. London, United Kingdom. 2019. ISBN 978-0-12-805204-4. OCLC 1052566532.
^ 43.043.1Cavicchioli, R., Ripple, W.J., Timmis, K.N., Azam, F., Bakken, L.R., Baylis, M., Behrenfeld, M.J., Boetius, A., Boyd, P.W., Classen, A.T. and Crowther, T.W. (2019) "Scientists’ warning to humanity: microorganisms and climate change". Nature Reviews Microbiology, 17: 569–586. doi:10.1038/s41579-019-0222-5
^Hansen, J., Fung, I., Lacis, A., Rind, D., Lebedeff, S., Ruedy, R., Russell, G. and Stone, P. (1988) "Global climate changes as forecast by Goddard Institute for Space Studies three‐dimensional model". Journal of geophysical research: Atmospheres, 93(D8): 9341–9364. doi:10.1029/JD093iD08p09341
^ 53.053.153.253.3Rogers, A.D., Frinault, B.A.V., Barnes, D.K.A., Bindoff, N.L., Downie, R., Ducklow, H.W., Friedlaender, A.S., Hart, T., Hill, S.L., Hofmann, E.E. and Linse, K. (2019) "Antarctic futures: an assessment of climate-driven changes in ecosystem structure, function, and service provisioning in the Southern Ocean". Annual review of marine science, 12: 87–120. doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-010419-011028
^Thompson, David W. J.; Solomon, Susan; Kushner, Paul J.; England, Matthew H.; Grise, Kevin M.; Karoly, David J. Signatures of the Antarctic ozone hole in Southern Hemisphere surface climate change. Nature Geoscience. 2011-10-23, 4 (11): 741–749. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..741T. ISSN 1752-0894. doi:10.1038/ngeo1296(英语).
^Hayakawa, Hideaki; Shibuya, Kazuo; Aoyama, Yuichi; Nogi, Yoshifumi; Doi, Koichiro. Ocean bottom pressure variability in the Antarctic Divergence Zone off Lützow-Holm Bay, East Antarctica. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 2012, 60: 22–31. Bibcode:2012DSRI...60...22H. ISSN 0967-0637. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2011.09.005.
^Mario Vacchi; Philippe Koubbi; Laura Ghigliotti; Eva Pisano. Sea-ice interactions with polar fish: focus on the Antarctic silverfish life history. Guido di Prisco; Cinzia Verde (编). The Impacts of Global Change on Biodiversity. Adaptation and Evolution in Marine Environments 1. Springer Science & Business Media. 2012: 51–73. ISBN 9783642273513. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27352-0_4.
^CSIRO 2015 update (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) to data originally published in: Church, J.A., and N.J. White (2011) "Sea-level rise from the late 19th to the early 21st century". Surv. Geophys., 32: 585–602.
^Wong, Poh Poh; Losado, I.J.; Gattuso, J.-P.; Hinkel, Jochen. Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas(PDF). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2014 [2023-01-11]. (原始内容(PDF)存档于2018-11-23).
^Crosby, Sarah C.; Sax, Dov F.; Palmer, Megan E.; Booth, Harriet S.; Deegan, Linda A.; Bertness, Mark D.; Leslie, Heather M. Salt marsh persistence is threatened by predicted sea-level rise. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. November 2016, 181: 93–99. Bibcode:2016ECSS..181...93C. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2016.08.018.
^Weston, Nathaniel B. Declining Sediments and Rising Seas: an Unfortunate Convergence for Tidal Wetlands. Estuaries and Coasts. 2013-07-16, 37 (1): 1–23. S2CID 128615335. doi:10.1007/s12237-013-9654-8.
^Sea Level Rise. National Geographic. 2017-01-13 [2023-01-11]. (原始内容存档于2020-01-02).
^Mostofa, K.M., Liu, C.Q., Zhai, W., Minella, M., Vione, D.V., Gao, K., Minakata, D., Arakaki, T., Yoshioka, T., Hayakawa, K. and Konohira, E. (2016) "Reviews and Syntheses: Ocean acidification and its potential impacts on marine ecosystems". Biogeosciences, 13: 1767–1786. doi:10.5194/bg-13-1767-2016. Modified text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 International License.
^IPCC (2019) Summary for Policymakers. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), Chapter 1, page 14. [H.O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N. Weyer (eds.)]. Final draft: 2019-09-24.
^Bednaršek, N., Harvey, C.J., Kaplan, I.C., Feely, R.A. and Možina, J. (2016) "Pteropods on the edge: Cumulative effects of ocean acidification, warming, and deoxygenation". Progress in Oceanography, 145: 1–24. doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2016.04.002
^Keeling, Ralph F., and Hernan E. Garcia (2002) "The change in oceanic O2 inventory associated with recent global warming." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(12): 7848–7853. doi:10.1073/pnas.122154899
^Press Release(PDF). IPCC (新闻稿). Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC). 2019-09-25: 3 [2020-03-25]. (原始内容存档(PDF)于2023-01-22).
^ 100.0100.1Wadham, J.L., Hawkings, J.R., Tarasov, L., Gregoire, L.J., Spencer, R.G.M., Gutjahr, M., Ridgwell, A. and Kohfeld, K.E. (2019) "Ice sheets matter for the global carbon cycle". Nature communications, 10(1): 1–17. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11394-4. Modified text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
^D'Olivo, Juan P.; Ellwood, George; DeCarlo, Thomas M.; McCulloch, Malcolm T. Deconvolving the long-term impacts of ocean acidification and warming on coral biomineralisation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2019-11-15, 526: 115785. Bibcode:2019E&PSL.52615785D. ISSN 0012-821X. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2019.115785.
^Petrou, K., Baker, K.G., Nielsen, D.A. et al. (2019) "Acidification diminishes diatom silica production in the Southern Ocean". Nature: Climate Change, 9: 781–786. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0557-y
^Information, US Department of Commerce, NOAA National Centers for Environmental. World Ocean Atlas 2009. www.nodc.noaa.gov. [2018-04-14]. (原始内容存档于2010-05-27).
^Ciais, P., Sabine, C., Govindasamy, B., Bopp, L., Brovkin, V., Canadell, J., Chhabra, A., DeFries, R., Galloway, J., Heimann, M., Jones, C., Le Quéré, C., Myneni, R., Piao, S., and Thornton, P.: Chapter 6: Carbon and Other Biogeochemical Cycles, in: Climate Change 2013 The Physical Science Basis, edited by: Stocker, T., Qin, D., and Platner, G.-K., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2013.
^Friedlingstein, P., Jones, M., O'Sullivan, M., Andrew, R., Hauck, J., Peters, G., Peters, W., Pongratz, J., Sitch, S., Le Quéré, C. and 66 others (2019) "Global carbon budget 2019". Earth System Science Data, 11(4): 1783–1838. doi:10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019. Modified text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
^Cardini, U., Bednarz, V.N., Foster, R.A. and Wild, C. (2014) "Benthic N2 fixation in coral reefs and the potential effects of human‐induced environmental change". Ecology and evolution, 4(9): 1706–1727. doi:10.1002/ece3.1050 Modified text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
^Adapted from: Gruber, N., and J. N. Galloway (2008) "An Earth‐system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle". Nature, 451:293–296. doi:10.1038/nature06592.
^GESAMP (2019). "High level review of a wide range of proposed marine geoengineering techniques", in Rep. Stud. GESAMP. 98, (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UN Environment/ UNDP/ISA Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection). Eds: P. W. Boyd and C. M. G. Vivian, International Maritime Organization, London.
^Gewin, V. (2010) "Oceanography: Dead in the water". Nature, 466(7308): 812. doi:10.1038/466812a.
^Breitburg, D.L. and Riedel, G.F. (2005) "Multiple stressors in marine systems". In: M. E. Soulé, Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea's biodiversity, Island Press, pages 167–182. ISBN9781597267717
^Bopp, L., Resplandy, L., Orr, J.C., Doney, S.C., Dunne, J.P., Gehlen, M., Halloran, P., Heinze, C., Ilyina, T., Seferian, R. and Tjiputra, J. (2013) "Multiple stressors of ocean ecosystems in the 21st century: projections with CMIP5 models". Biogeosciences, 10: 6225–6245. doi:10.5194/bg-10-6225-2013
^ 130.0130.1Kroeker, et al. (June 2013) "Impacts of ocean acidification on marine organisms: quantifying sensitivities and interaction with warming." Glob Chang Biol. 19(6): 1884–1896
^ 131.0131.1Harvey B.P., Gwynn‐Jones D. and Moore P.J. (2013) "Meta‐analysis reveals complex marine biological responses to the interactive effects of ocean acidification and warming". Ecology and evolution, 3(4): 1016–1030. doi:10.1002/ece3.516
^ 132.0132.1Nagelkerken Global alteration of ocean ecosystem functioning due to increasing human CO2 emissions, PNAS vol. 112 no. 43, 2015
^Harvey, et al. (April 2013) "Meta-analysis reveals complex marine biological responses to the interactive effects of ocean acidification and warming." Ecol Evol. 3(4): 1016–1030
^Bednaršek, N.; Harvey, C.J.; Kaplan, I.C.; Feely, R.A.; Možina, J. Pteropods on the edge: Cumulative effects of ocean acidification, warming, and deoxygenation. Progress in Oceanography. 2016, 145: 1–24. Bibcode:2016PrOce.145....1B. doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2016.04.002.
^Pendleton, L.H., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Langdon, C. and Comte, A. (2016) "Multiple stressors and ecological complexity require a new approach to coral reef research". Frontiers in Marine Science, 3: 36. doi:10.3389/fmars.2016.00036
^Gruber, Nicolas. "Warming up, turning sour, losing breath: ocean biogeochemistry under global change." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369.1943 (2011): 1980–1996.
^Anthony, et al. (May 2011) "Ocean acidification and warming will lower coral reef resilience." Global Change biology, Volume 17, Issue 5, Pages 1798–1808
^Goldenberg, Silvan U, et al. (2017) "Boosted food web productivity through ocean acidification collapses under warming." Global Change Biology.
^Pistevos, Jennifer CA, et al. (2015) "Ocean acidification and global warming impair shark hunting behaviour and growth." Scientific reports 5: 16293.
^ 141.0141.1Österblom, H., Crona, B.I., Folke, C., Nyström, M. and Troell, M. (2017) "Marine ecosystem science on an intertwined planet". Ecosystems, 20(1): 54–61. doi:10.1007/s10021-016-9998-6