Yemaek

Yemaek
Hangul	예맥
Hanja	濊貊/穢貊
RR	Yemaek
MR	Yemaek

Yemaek or Yamaek 濊貊 were a people of Koreans who resided in ancient Manchuria. Whether they were: homogenous; heterogenous of Ye 濊 and Maek 貊; or whether Yemaek were a branch of Maek remains debated. However, the most accepted model is that they were ethnolinguistically identical but remained socially and politically disparate identities. The first Yemaek state to appear were 朝鮮 (Joson) that fell in 108 BC. They were renamed Old Joson after Joson Kingdom were later founded in 1392 AD: ostensibly as a successor state to Old Joson. Yemaek together with Han 韓 acted as the foundations for the formation of the Korean national identity. Of the three kingdoms who succeeded in forming centralised bureaucracy, 高句麗 (Gogooryo) had the strongest connection with Yemaek whereas 新羅 (Silla) had stronger Han identity and 百濟 (Baekje) were considered something in-between. Thus, the study of Yemaek is inevitably centralised around Gogooryo.

It remains controversial whether Gogooryo were: Ye; Maek; Yemaek; a branch of Yemaek; or Ye whose exonym were Maek due to sparse indigenous sources. However, it does appear Gogooryo had been an accumulation of many peoples such as Daesoo Maek (大水貊), Sosoo Maek (小水貊) and purportedly Yang Maek (梁貊). Furthermore, people who resided in the river basin of Amnok River began to be referred to as Maek somewhere near Anno Domini and it's hypothesised they amalgamated with Ye whom migrated from Booyo. They further accelerated their expansion by further conquering nearby tribes, thus forming a unified Yemaek identity under one sovereign.^[1]

History

Historiography

The earliest attestations for Yemaek appear in the 3rd century AD Records of the Three Chinese Kingdoms that 高句麗 (Gogooryo) bordered 濊貊 Yemaek and 朝鮮 (Joson)^[a] to the south.^[2] However, it's also recorded in the early 5th century AD Book of East Han China that 濊 Ye, 貊 Maek, 倭 (Wa) and 韓 Han disparately provided tribute when East Han secured their borders after raids from 貊人 'Maek people.'^[3] Although the Records of the Chinese Three Kingdoms were published earlier, the Book of East Han China are records of earlier history. Hence, it's been hypothesised Yemaek could've originally been heterogenous peoples of Ye and Maek.

Whereas, the earliest definitive attestations for Yemaek as a homogenous identity appear later in the Book of East Han China wherein it's recorded the eastern borders became quiet after Yemaek were subdued.^[4] The current scholarly consensus asserts this must be a denomination towards Gogooryo for it's one of the last sentences in the chapter coined in their name. This assertion concludes Gogooryo were a unification of Yemaek by the fifth century AD.

The first historiographical attempt to analyse Yemaek were conducted by Jong Yak-yong in his 我邦疆域考 'study of the territories of my nation' (1811) that 貊 Maek were the name of the people and 濊 Ye were the name of the place. Thus, 濊貊 Yemaek were one of the 九貊 'nine peoples of Maek.'^[5] This seems to reflect the Sinocentric model of the 九夷 (Nine Barbarians of the East).^[6] The East Barbarians were a motif that's recurrent in both the Records of the Chinese Three Kingdoms and the Book of East Han China. Both designate Japanese peoples, Korean peoples and 挹婁 (Yilou) as East Barbarians. Yilou are an interesting inclusion since their contemporaries were aware Yilou were unintelligible with 夫餘 (Booyo) whom Yilou bordered to the south.^[7] Therefore, current scholarly consensus assumes Yilou were Jurchen people.

The East Barbarians were also colloquially dubbed the Nine Barbarians. However, this seems to be an exaggerated numeral to imply there existed many peoples. Current scholarly consensus asserts this description later influenced the Nine-story wooden tower of Hwang-nyong temple (erected in the capital of Silla) which commemorated the unification of the Korean peninsula whereby each floor designated a people Silla subdued ie. 九韓 'nine Han'.^[8] Ergo, Jong-Yakyong's hypothesis vis-à-vis the origins of Yemaek proves there existed scholarly opinion in 19th century Joson Kingdom that Koreans could trace their origins to Yemaek.

Joson

The capital of 百濟 (Baekje) was called 熊津 (Gom-naroo). It could be translated in English as 'bear-port' and another name for it was "Koma-naroo". It ostensibly has its origins in a bear sow who kidnapped a local fisherman: when the fisherman fled, she drowned herself in the river. Scholars believe its etymology can be traced to the Yemaek word "kue:ma:" whose descendants are also the Japanese words 神 (kami) 'god' and 高麗 (Koma).^[9] Hence, it's been hypothesised Gogooryo worshipped bear totems. It's been additionally attested in the Records of the Three Chinese Kingdoms that Ye worshipped tiger totems.^[10] Ergo, scholars have connected this with the Dangoon myth that Ye with tiger totems and Maek with bear totems amalgamated into Joson.^[11]

The earliest accounts of the Dangoon myth appear in the 13th century AD Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms that a bear and tiger, who were living together in a cave, constantly prayed to 桓雄 (Hwanoong) to become people. Hwanoong whereupon offered divine mugwort and garlic, foretelling that eating these for a hundred days without seeing the sun would turn them into people. The bear became a woman in 37 days but the tiger failed to do so after breaking restraint. When 熊女 (Woong-nyo) 'bear-woman' prayed under a tree to conceive, Hwanoong thereupon briefly became mortal to marry her. Woong-nyo thereafter conceived a son and 檀君王儉 (Dangoon wang-gom) were his name.^[12] Joson is considered the first Korean nation and its founding is attributed to Dangoon. Thus, Dangoon is considered the founding father of the Korean nation and his myth has been exhaustively studied to analyse the origins of Korean identity.^[13]

Current scholarly consensus asserts the Bronze Age began with the advent of Min-moonui 'patternless' pottery, dolmen, cist, lute-shaped bronze daggers, 細形銅劍 (Se-hyong dong-gom) 'thin-shaped bronze daggers' and bronze mirrors. The artefacts of lute-shaped bronze daggers especially provide valuable intelligence vis-à-vis the origin and distribution of Bronze Age cultures. Moreover, it's accounted in the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms that the latter half of Dangoon Joson were called Giza Joson. This is purportedly a reference towards Giza, a wise old man of the late Shang dynasty, accounted in the Bamboo Annals, Book of Documents and the Analects. However, no connection between Giza and Korea could be found in such texts. Hence, it's been hypothesised their relevance were a later invention. Nevertheless, the legendary kingdom of Giza were accounted to exist 12th century-2nd century BC and this coincides with the advent of Iron Age swords and iron farming tools in the 7th-6th century via Yemaek who'd concurrently initiated aquaculture. Thus, modern revisionist scholars have coined this period 濊貊朝鮮 (Yemaek Joson) and it's been hypothesised they were developing as pristine states. Modern studies have additionally traced the origins of lute-shaped bronze daggers to bronze daggers of the Fëdorovo culture. Ergo, it's now understood indigenous agriculture fused with imported pastoralism via bronze daggers to amalgamate into agropastoral practices that defined the nature of Yemaek Joson civilisation.^[14]

It's attested in the first century BC Book of Han China that Wiman invaded Joson and took the throne.^[15] However, Kim Sok-hyong provides a more nuanced process. Kim argues Wiman required a lot of time to consolidate power in the west. Thus, he couldn't have seized power immediately after seeking asylum in Joson. Therefore, it weren't till 180 BC that he claimed legitimacy of power and overthrew King Joon.^[16] This hypothesis inevitably falls to the conclusion wherein there existed two Joson kingdoms 194-180 BC. Kim hypothesised Wiman Joson seized the river basins of Daling River and Liao River; whereas Yemaek Joson settled in the northwest of the original Joson area. Yoon Nae-hyon however in lieu provides an alternative proposition: Wiman Joson settled in the east coast of the Luan River impertinent to the original centre of power for Joson.^[17]

Maek

The origins for Gogooryo are provided in the Records of the Three Chinese Kingdoms wherein they were founded in the river basin of 大水 (Daesoo) 'big water' ie. Amnok River.^[18] Another state is chronicled founded by a split branch of Gogooryo in the river basin of 小水 (Sosoo) 'small water' ie. Dongka River.^[19] Hence, they were called 小水貊 (Sosoo Maek). This is the earliest attested identification of Gogooryo as Maek.^[20] Moreover, 梁貊 (Yang Maek) are attested in the 12th century History of the Three Kingdoms that they were subdued by King Yoori in the 33rd year of his reign whilst on their way to attack East Han. Since the contemporary capital of the colony lied in the coast of the Hun river, it's been hypothesised Yang Maek referred to Maek who lived in the river basin of 梁水 (Yangsoo) ie. Taizi River situated between the Amnok and Hun river.^[21] However, it's also been hypothesised Yangsoo simply refers to Sosoo and thus the same people.^[22] Considering Cao Wei were defeated near Yang Maek by King Dongchon^[23] and again by King Joongchon^[24] it's evident they served an existential role for Maek sovereignty.

It's further attested in the History of the Three Kingdoms that 貊國 (Maek gook) 'land of Maek' aided Yoori Isagum^[b] in the 17th year of his reign when his northern borders were invaded^[25] and provided tribute in the 19th year.^[26] Although it's attested 朔州 (Sakjoo) - modern day Choonchon - were the lands of Maek gook,^[27] modern revisionist scholars argue this were a surmise of Silla when they annexed Sakjoo from Gogooryo: that Sakjoo were the origins of Maek. It's argued this myth simply persisted into Goryo whence the History of the Three Kingdoms were published.^[28]

King Uija were the last king of Baekje. He had a son called Booyo Yoong whose epitaph remains examinable. It's attested that he were extraordinary since his early years with exceptional beauty; his confidence overwhelmed the Three Han and his reputation spread across both Maek. Furthermore, the second sentence of his epitaph begins with stating that he's the descendant of Habaek,^[29] a mythical god whose daughter Lady Yoohwa gave birth to Go Joo-mong: the founding father of Gogooryo. Thus, it can be deduced the monarchs of Baekje traced their lineage to the kings of Gogooryo and this is what the epitaph inferred by 'both Maek.'

Ye

濊 Ye were attested in the Records of the Three Chinese Kingdoms to border Gogooryo to the north on the coast of the Great Sea.^[30] However, they were retroactively denominated 'East Ye' by modern historians in order to discern them from the hypothetical Ye who made up Yemaek, though the two are virtually indiscernible in contemporary records. It's attested in the Records of the Three Chinese Kingdoms that Ye had no supreme king and elders had claimed for generations they were the same people as Gogooryo.^[31] Of the city-states of Ye, 不耐穢國 (Boolne Ye gook) were the most powerful and lasted the longest.^[32] Moreover, a grave were excavated in the Nangnang area in 1958 wherein a silver seal carved as "夫組穢君" (Boojo-Ye-goon) were discovered.^[33] These names conclusively prove Ye could be also transcribed in Hanja as 穢.

Silla

It's attested in the Records of the Three Chinese Kingdoms that Yok Gye-gyong were an official in Joson whose suggestions were ignored by King Ugo. Angered, he migrated to 辰韓 (Jin Han) with his subjects and this resulted in 2,000 new homes.^[34] It's additionally attested later in the Records of the Three Chinese Kingdoms that the elderly of Jin Han had passed down for generations, "we were refugees who fled to 韓國 (Han gook) 'land of Han' to avoid the turmoil of Qin. 馬韓 (Ma Han) thereupon divided their eastern land and gave it to us."^[35] Moreover, unlike Mahan, there exist an exponential increase in Joson artefacts in Jin Han areas.^[36] Jin Han were a loose confederacy of smaller city-states who - along with Ma Han and 弁韓 (Byon Han) otherwise 弁辰 (Byonjin) - amalgamated into the Three Han, otherwise Han gook. Of the city-states of Ma Han, Baekje became the most powerful by the 3rd century and successfully unified Ma Han by the 4th century.^[37] Meanwhile, although Daegaya were the most powerful of the Byon Han city-states, they nevertheless failed to successfully unify Byon Han. They were eventually annexed via Silla after successfully unifiying Jin Han.

Bak (狛)

It's attested in the Chronicles of Japan that Baekje used 狛賊 (Bakjok) as a pejorative for Gogooryo.^[38] Furthermore, 狛犬 (Koma-inu) is Japanese for 'Korean dog' wherein 狛 (Koma) is another transliteration for 高麗 (Koma) ie. Gogooryo.^[39] Ergo, due to their ostensible similarities, 狛 (Bak) has been argued to be another Hanja transliteration for 貊 (Maek). However, a counterargument has been claimed that if Baekje considered themselves Maek they would not use it in a pejorative such as 貊賊 (Maekjok) 'Maek marauder.' Ergo, 狛 cannot be a synonym for 貊.

Language

Main articles: Ye-Maek language and Puyŏ languages

It's attested in the Records of the Three Chinese Kingdoms the intelligence had been passed down for generations within East Barbarians that Gogooryo were a split branch of Booyo and their traditions and language are alike.^[40] It's further attested in the Records of the Three Chinese Kingdoms that the language of Okjo were generally identical to Gogooryo, though there existed differences at times^[41] and the language, manners and traditions of Ye were also generally identical to Gogooryo.^[42]

Legacy

It's recorded the exonym for Korea were "Mukuri" and "Mug-lig" in Sanskrit and Tibetan, respectively.^[43] Paul Pelliot believed these names could be the origins of the obscure people "Muc" accounted by Guillaume de Rubrouck.^[44] "Muc" were introduced as people 'beyond' "Longa" and "Solanga" by Rubrouck: where "Longa" and "Solanga" themselves people 'beyond' "Tebet."^[45] It's been asserted by Christopher Atwood that the earliest attestations for "Solanga" appear in the Ystoria Mongalorum as "Solangi." It's argued that: "combining the sense of regnal status and geography, only Korea would seem to fit," whereupon vis-à-vis Rubrouck's "Solanga," "the description of the envoy's clothing and hat are unmistakable that of Goryeo dynasty Korea, and the behavior of the envoy while speaking his message is exactly that of an official at a Confucian court."^[46] Ergo, Pelliot's hypothesis that "Muc" people (accounted by Rubrouck) are also Korean thus seems to be a reasonable conclusion and furthermore appear to be a transliteration of Maek. Therefore, it could be hypothesised Maek remained an exonym for Korea into the 13th century AD.

It's claimed the earliest attestations for Korea in occidental sources appear in the Theophylact Simocatta Historiae. Michael and Mary Whitby's translation attests: "Others of the Avars, who declined to humbler fortune because of their defeat, came to those who are called Mucri; this nation is the closest neighbour to the men of Taugast; it has great might in battle both because of its daily practice of drill and because of endurance of spirit in danger."^[47] Their footnote identifies "Mucri" as a nation in the Korean peninsula and " Mουκρί" (the original text in Greek) are further hypothesised to refer to Gogooryo since 𐰋𐰇𐰚𐰠𐰃 (Bökli) is attested to be Old Turkic for Gogooryo. Due to how highly restrictive Old Turkic were in which consonant words could begin with, it's been reconstructed that the exonym for Gogooryo by Avar were pronounced "Mökli," thus "Mουκρί" in Greek.

It's recorded in the Gwaɳgaeto Emperor Stele that: "祖王 'the earliest king' and 先王 'earlier kings' only had 舊民 'the subjects of old' from nigh and yonder guard and clean their tombs. I worry my subjects [too] will grow impoverished and exhausted. If someone were to protect my resting place after my death, you shall order only the 韓 Han and 穢 Ye I've snatched in propria persona to prepare the burial duties of guarding and cleaning my tomb."^[48] This stele has been used to interpret the 天下觀 (chonhagwan) 'worldview under the Sun' of Gogooryo. Chonhagwan is a Sinosphere ideology that there can exist one centre 'under the Sun.' Hence, it's been hypothesised Gogooryo considered Han and Ye within their sphere of influence and thus, they were the centre under the Sun of Yemaek and Han. Ergo, since Silla too argued for 三韓一統 'union of the three Han' after their unification, it's been argued the three kingdoms recognised a broadly shared ethnic identity.

See also

• History of Korea
• History of Manchuria
• List of monarchs of Korea
• Old Joson
• Wiman Joson
• Booyo
• Gogooryo
• Okjo
• Eastern Ye
• Three Han

Notes

1. not to be confused with Old Joson which fell circa four centuries earlier, and Joson Kingdom which wouldn't be founded for another millenium; it's been hypothesised this were the area around Pyongyang
2. Isagum of Silla, not to be confused with the earlier King Yoori of Gogooryo, though they were contemporaries

References

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3. "국사편찬위원회 중국정사조선전 후한서 (後漢書) 동이열전(東夷列傳) 서(序) 王莽이 位를 찬탈하여 황제가 되자, 貊人이".
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39. "Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System komainu 狛犬".
40. "국사편찬위원회 중국정사조선전 삼국지(三國志) 위서(魏書) 30 동이전(東夷傳) 고구려(高句麗) 東夷의 옛 말에 의하면 [고구려는]".
41. "국사편찬위원회 중국정사조선전 삼국지(三國志) 위서(魏書) 30 동이전(東夷傳) 동옥저(東沃沮) 東沃沮는 고구려 蓋馬大山의 동쪽에 있는데,".
42. "국사편찬위원회 중국정사조선전 삼국지(三國志) 위서(魏書) 30 동이전(東夷傳) 예(濊) [濊에는] 大君長이 없고 漢代 이래로".
43. Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, 1929, "Deux lexiques Sanskrit-Chinois I", Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, p.295.
44. Paul Pelliot, 1959, "Notes on Marco Polo I", Imprimerie nationale, 129. Cauli
45. ""The journey of William of Rubruck to the eastern parts of the world, 1253-55", Internet Archive, pp.152-154".
46. "Christopher P Atwood, 2020, "The Koreans, the Bulls, and Lady Qulan: Explorations in Medieval Mongolian Ethnography", Annual Mongolian Studies Conference: "Art and Culture among the Mongols", XIV, pp.214-215".
47. ""The History of Theophylact Simocatta by Theophylact Simocatta; Michael Whitby, translator; Mary Whitby, translator" Internet Archive, p.189".
48. "국사편찬위원회 금석문·문자자료 고구려 비문 광개토왕릉비".