Nile

For other uses, see Nile (disambiguation).

Nile River
The Nile downstream from Murchison Falls
Location
Countries	Burundi, DR Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda[1]
Major cities	Bahir Dar, Cairo, Khartoum, Jinja, Juba
Physical characteristics
Source	Rukarara River, Rwanda[2][a]
• coordinates	02°19′35″S 29°21′30″E / 2.32639°S 29.35833°E / -2.32639; 29.35833[2]
• elevation	2,539 m (8,330 ft)[2]
Length	7,088 km (4,404 mi)[3]
Basin size	2,927,843 km^2 (1,130,447 mi^2)[1]
Discharge
• location	Nile Delta into Mediterranean Sea
• average	150 m^3/s (5,300 cu ft/s)[4]

The Nile River is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa which flows into the Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 km (4,404 mi) long, it is the longest river in the world, although the volume of water it carries is much smaller than other major rivers such as the Amazon or Congo. Its drainage basin covers portions of eleven countries: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt. It plays an important economic role in the economy of these nations, and it is the primary water source for South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt.

The Nile has two major tributaries: the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The White Nile, being longer, is considered to be the headwaters, although the Blue Nile contributes 80% of the water and silt below the confluence of the two. The White Nile begins at Lake Victoria and flows through Uganda and South Sudan, while the Blue Nile begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia^[5] and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet at the Sudanese capital of Khartoum. After Khartoum the river flows north, almost entirely through the Nubian Desert, to Cairo and its large delta, joining the Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria.

Egyptian civilization and Sudanese kingdoms have depended on the river and its annual flooding since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of the Aswan Dam. Nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt developed and are found along river banks. The Nile is, with the Rhône and Po, one of the three Mediterranean rivers with the largest water discharge.

Names and etymology

The English word Nile is derived from the from the Latin Nilus and the Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), which possibly originated from the Semitic term naḥal, meaning "river".^[6]

In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile was called Ar or Aur, meaning 'black', probably in reference to the dark color of the Nile floodwaters as they carried sediment from upriver.^[6] The Coptic language in Egypt, which is no longer spoken, but still used for liturgical purposes, also refers to the river with the word for 'black': ⲫⲓⲁⲣⲟ.^[6]

In the modern era, the river goes by several names within the Nile Basin. In Egypt, its names use the Arabic word النيل (romanized as 'Nil') in forms such as Al-Nīl, Baḥr Al-Nīl or Nahr Al-Nīl.^[7][b] In South Sudan, it is sometimes referred to by the Arabic 'Baḥr el-Jebel', بحر الجبل, literally 'Mountain River'.^[8] In Uganda, the speakers of Luganda use the name Kiyira.^[9] Some Nubian peoples of Egypt and Sudan use the Nobiin name Áman Dawū ('Great Water').^[10]

Physical geography

The Nile River is a major river in northeastern Africa which flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Its drainage basin includes portions of eleven countries: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt.^[11][c] The basin covers a wide variety of climates, ecosystems, and topographies.^[13]

Sources

Furthest Source

Highest source

Southernmost source

Lake Victoria outflow

Blue Nile Source

class=notpageimage|

Sources of the Nile River

The source of the Nile is a tributary of the Rukarara River, in Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda, at 2°19′35″S 29°21′30″E / 2.32639°S 29.35833°E / -2.32639; 29.35833, at an elevation of 2,539 meters.^[2][a] The source is defined as the starting point of the longest year-round watercourse in the Nile's drainage basin.^[3] From this source, the river runs 7,088 km to the river's mouth at the Mediterranean Sea.^[3] The distance was determined from satellite imagery, and was measured along the centerline of the river.^[3]

The highest sources of the Nile (based on elevation) are on the slopes of the Rwenzori Mountains in Uganda.^[14][d] The legendary Mountains of the Moon, described by Ptolemy, have been associated with Rwenzori.^[14]

The southernmost source of the Nile is in Burundi at one of the heads of the Ruvyironza River, which feeds into the Kagera River. A monumuent was erected there in 1937 by Burkhart Waldecker near the town of Rutovu, close to Mount Kikizi.^[16][e]

Lake Victoria is sometimes informally described as the source of the Nile, partly because early European explorers claimed that the lake was the source; and partly because the lake's outflow river is the most upstream river called the "Nile" (rivers flowing into Lake Victoria, such as the Kagera River, do not have the word "Nile" in their names).^[17] Some have suggested that the true source of the Nile is the rain clouds that are often found above Lake Victoria, because they supply five times more water to the lake than the lake's inflow rivers.^[15]

The source of the Blue Nile tributary is near the town of Gish Abay, south of Lake Tana.^[18][f]

Regions of the Nile Basin

This map of northeast Africa shows the drainage basin of the Nile river. The basin is outlined with a solid line (and filled with various colors); areas outside the basin are monochrome. National borders are drawn as dashed lines.

The Nile Basin can be divided into seven regions; five of these regions encompass the longest course of the Nile River. Proceeding in a downstream sequence, these five regions are: the African Great Lakes, the Mountain Nile, the White Nile, the main Nile, and the Nile Delta. Two additional regions encompass major tributaries: the Blue Nile and the Atbarah River.^[6]

African Great Lakes

The African Great Lakes region contains the source of the Nile river as well as several large lakes that are part of the Nile river system: Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake George, and Lake Edward.^[19] The source of the Nile is the Rukarara River within Rwanda's Nyungwe National Park,^[3] and it leads to the Kagera River,^[g] which drains into Lake Victoria.^[6] Although it is a large lake – the second-largest freshwater lake in the world^[h] – Lake Victoria is relatively shallow. The Nile river first assumes the name "Nile" where Lake Victoria empties on its north side: the course from there to Lake Albert is called the Victoria Nile.^[6] A pair of waterfalls – Ripon Falls and Owen Falls – were located where the Nile exits Lake Victoria, but have both been submerged by the construction of the Nalubaale dam. After Bujagali Falls and Bujagali Power Station, the Victoria Nile empties into Lake Kyoga. After exiting Lake Kyoga, the river is joined by the River Kafu tributary, then passes over Murchison Falls and flows into Lake Albert. Unlike Lake Victoria, Lake Albert is a deep lake surrounded by mountains. The river exits Lake Albert on its north shore, where it is called the Albert Nile; this stretch of the river is relatively flat and broad, and suitable for navigation by steamboats.^[6]

Mountain Nile

The second region of the Nile Basin, proceeding downstream, is the Mountain Nile (Arabic: Bahr al Jabal).^[20] This region begins near the town of Nimule and extends to Lake No, and is entirely within South Sudan. After passing through Nimule, the river goes through the Fula Rapids and on to Juba – the capital city of South Sudan. After Juba, the Nile passes through the town of Bor, then enters the Sudd, a large swamp located in a flat plain. The slope of the ground in the Sudd is only 1:13,000, so the river slows down and widens. Lush vegetation, including sedges, papyrus, and common water hyacinth (an invasive species) clog the waterways and make navigation difficult. At the downstream edge of the Sudd swamp, the Nile is joined by the Bahr el Ghazal River (Arabic: "gazelle river") a tribuatary flowing from the west. This confluence happens in Lake No.^[6]

White Nile

Continuing downstream, the third region of the Nile Basin is the White Nile region.^[i] About 140 km after Lake No, the swamps diminish near the city of Malakal, and the river enters a long, placid stretch extending to Khartoum, where it is joined by the Blue Nile near Khartoum, the capital of Sudan.^[6]

Main Nile

The electrical generators of the Aswan High Dam produce 10 billion kilowatt hours per year.

The fourth region of the Nile Basin – the main Nile^[j] – extends from Khartoum to Cairo, the capital of Egypt. Soon after leaving Khartoum, the river goes enters the Sabloka Nature Reserve^[k] and goes through the sixth (and furthest upstream) of the renowned six cataracts of the Nile. The Atbarah River – a major tributary – joins the Nile, which then follows a large S-shape curve to the west. Four more cataracts are encountered in this large S-curve, which render the river unnavigable, although ships may travel between the cataracts. The river then enters a large reservoir, Lake Nasser.^[l] This lake – the world's second largest man-made lake – was formed when the Aswan High Dam was built in Egypt, and inundates more than 480 km of the Nile river. A second dam, older and smaller, lies beneath the Aswan High Dam, near the location of the first Nile cataract (now submerged). From these dams, the Nile flows about 800 km through a limestone plateau, bordered by large amounts of irrigated farmland, until it reaches Cairo.^[6]

Nile Delta

The fifth, and final, region encompassing the Nile river is the Nile Delta, a large triangular river delta (about 22,000 km^2[22]) that extends from Cairo to the Mediterranean Sea.^[6] The river splits into two major distributaries (channels) within the delta: the Rosetta branch and the Damietta branch. The soil in the delta ranges from 15 to 22 meters thick, and the total volume (including the submerged portions) is about 150,000 km³. The delta was created over several million years, built-up from soil carried down the river from the Ethiopian Highlands.^[23] Since the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1970, the delta has begun to shrink due erosion caused by currents in the Mediterranean Sea. In the past, erosion was balanced by new soils arriving in the form of sediment carried by the river; but the dam traps sediment in its reservoir, preventing new soil from reaching the delta.^[24][m]

The final two regions of the Nile Basin are the Blue Nile basin and the Atbarah River basin,^[6] both discussed in the section on Tributaries.

Tributaries

The longest course of the Nile, which includes the White Nile tributary, has several other tributaries that feed into it.

Blue Nile

Main article: Blue Nile

The Blue Nile Falls fed by Lake Tana near the city of Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

The Blue Nile springs from hills in Ethiopia^[18] where it originates as a stream named Abay near the town of Gish Abay: Gish in an Amharic word meaning 'source', and Abay is the name of the stream.^[18][26] Gish Abay flows into Lake Tana, a large, shallow lake, which has a single outflow where it adopts the 'Blue Nile' name. The Blue Nile travels south, then north passing through South Sudan into Sudan, where it joins with the White Nile at Khartoum to form the main Nile.^[26] Along its course, the Blue Nile generates electricity at several hydro power plants, including the Tisabay hydropower project at the Blue Nile Falls, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam near the border between Ethiopia and South Sudan, the Roseires Dam near town of Ad Damazin, and the Sennar Dam.^[27] The size of the Blue Nile's drainage basin is over 306,000 square km.^[28]

Atbarah River

Main article: Atbarah River

The Atbarah River^[n] is a tributary of the Nile which arises in northern Ethiopia, and joins the Nile about 320 km north of Khartoum.^[30] Its drainage basin covers over 204,000 square km.^[28] The Atbarah has a heavy flow during and following the monsoon season in Ethiopia (summer and fall), but can dry up in the winter and spring. Despite the intermittent nature of the river, it provides more than 10% of the total annual flow of the Nile.^[30] Dams on the Atbarah include the Khashm el-Girba Dam, the Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex, and the Tekezé Dam (on the Tekezé River tributary).^[31]

Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat River

The Bahr al Ghazal and the Sobat River are two tributaries of the White Nile. The Bahr el Ghazal arrives from the west, joining the White Nile at Lake No. The drainage basin of the Bahr el Ghazal river is large – about 860,000 square km^[32] – and receives a relatively large amount of rain, but its contribution to the Nile is insignificant.^[o] It's basin includes Lake Kundi and Lake Keilak. The Bahr el Ghazal passes through the city of Wau, South Sudan: it is a permanent stream east of Wau, but a seasonal stream to the west.^[34]

Another tributary, the Sobat River, joins the White Nile (after the Bahr el Ghazal confluence, before the Blue Nile) near the town of Malaka. Its basin – which includes the Machar Marshes^[8] – covers about 225,000 square km.^[35] The Sobat floods between July and December.^[6]

Hydrology

v t e Nile River
Legend
Source, near Rukarara River Kagera River Rusumo Falls Lake Victoria Nalubaale dam and power station [S1] Measuring station Lake Kyoga Murchison Falls [S2] Measuring station Rwenzori Mtns (highest source) Lake Edward Semliki River Lake Albert [S3] Mongalla near Juba Sudd swamp Bahr el Ghazal tributary Lake No Sobat tributary Confluence of Sobat with Nile [S4] at Malakal Jebel Aulia Dam [S5] at Khartoum Gish Abay, source of Blue Nile Lake Tana Blue Nile Blue Nile Falls Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Roseires Dam and reservoir [S6] at Roseires Dam Sennar Dam [S7] at Khartoum Confluence of Blue and White Niles City of Khartoum 6th Cataract (80 km N of Khartoum) Atbarah tributary Tekezé River joins Atbarah Khashm el Girba Dam [S8] (at dam) [S9] (mouth of Atbarah) Confluence of Atbarah with Nile 5th Cataract (100 km N of Atbarah) Merowe Dam (4th Cataract) [S10] at Dongola 3rd Cataract (near Tombos) Lake Nasser (2nd Cataract) Aswan High Dam [S11] Aswan Low Dam (1st Cataract) Asyut Dam [S12] at Cairo Nile Delta: Rosetta, Damietta Mediterranean Sea
[S3] are stations used in tables below.[36] Schematic diagram. Distances not to scale. Top = upstream/south; Bottom = downstream/north.

Flow and floods

Further information: Flooding of the Nile

Although the Nile is the longest river in the world, it is far from having the largest discharge. Its flow – about 84 cubic km per year^[p] – is small compared to other major rivers. The Nile's discharge is only 1% of the Amazon, 6% of the Congo, and 12% of the Yellow River.^[38]

The present flow regime of the Nile was established about 15,000 years ago, when the summer monsoon shifted and substantially increased rainfall in the area of Lake Victoria and Lake Albert.^[39] The flood levels of both the Blue Nile and White Nile have fluctuated over the past 15,000 years, with unusually high flood levels occurring every few thousand years.^[40]

The annual contributions to the main Nile from the three primary tributaries are: 54% from the Blue Nile, 32% from the White Nile (including contributions from the Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat tributaries), and 14% from the Atabarah.^[41] The White Nile passes through the Sudd swamps before it reaches the Blue Nile; about half the water flowing into the Sudd is lost to evaporation before it flows out.^[42] At the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile in Khartoum, the Blue Nile provides two thirds of the water.^[43]

About 80% to 85% of the Nile's water reaching Egypt originates in Ethiopia (the Blue Nile, Atbarah, and Sobat tributaries combined); the remaining 15% to 20% is from the Great Lakes region and western South Sudan (the Mountain Nile and Bahr el Ghazal tributaries).^[44]

The highlands of the White Nile and Blue Nile both experience seasonal rain, but the White Nile's flow into the main Nile is much more constant than the Blue Nile.^[6] This is due to the many lakes and wetlands on the White Nile, which moderate the cyclic effects of seasonal rainfall.^[45]

In contrast, the Blue Nile has tremendous variability in its flow: it floods between July and October, due to summer monsoon rains.^[6] The waters of the Blue Nile are so substantial during the summer and autumn, that the White Nile backs-up during this time at the confluence.^[46] During the summer floods, the contributions to the main Nile are about 70% from the Blue Nile, about 20% from the Atbarah, and about 10% from the White Nile.^[6] At the peak of the flood, the daily flow into Lake Nasser is about 0.71 km³, about three times the annual daily average of 0.23 km³ per day.^[47] The Blue Nile, although shorter than the White Nile, contributes more water to the main Nile.^[48]

As the Blue Nile flow diminishes in the winter, the pent-up waters of the White Nile increase their flow past Khartoum.^[46] In April and May, the White Nile supplies about 80% of the main Nile's water. Thus, the areas downstream of Khartoum receive a steady (not to say constant) flow that made irrigation possible year-round.^[46]

Prior to the construction of dams on the Nile, the variability of flow in Egypt was significant: higher in the summer/fall; lower in the winter/spring. However, following the construction of the Aswan High Dam – which created a reservoir that can hold about two years of river flow – the flow downstream from that dam is now more constant year-round.^[49][q]

Sediment transport

The Nile carries sediment downstream. The movement of sediment is classified as suspended sediment (particles suspended in the water) or bedload (sediment on the river bottom that rolls or tumbles downstream).^{[citation needed]}

Ninety-six percent of the transported sediment carried by the Nile^[51] comes from the Atbarah and Blue Nile, both of which originate in Ethiopia, with fifty-nine percent of the water coming from the Blue Nile. The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian rainy season when rainfall is especially high in the Ethiopian Highlands; the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile have a weaker flow. In harsh and arid seasons and droughts, the Blue Nile dries out completely.^[52]

Sediment carried by the Nile, or its tributaries, into a reservoir has the potential to settle in the reservoir and reduce the storage capacity of the reservoir. Sediment accumulated behind the Sennar Dam, Roseires Dam (on the Blue Nile), and Khashm el Girba Dam (on the Atbarah) has significantly reduced the storage capacity of their reservoirs since they were built.^[53]

Annual sediment transport measured at several locations are listed below.^[54] These measurements conducted at various dates, ranging from 1997 to 2019. The bedload percentages are the ratio of bedload sediment to total (bedload and suspended) sediment. These data were collected before the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, which has a significant impact on sediment loads downstream of the dam.^[54]

• Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 0.7% of bedload
• El Deim (at the border of Ethiopia and Sudan): 140 million tonnes^[53]
• Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 28% of bedload
• Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 20% of bedload
• Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 27% of bedload
• Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 13% of bedload

Water sources and sinks

Water balance in the Nile basin is analyzed using hydrology: water input from rain is balanced by water output to the soil, evaporation, and streams.

Some regions in the Nile Basin contribute to the river's flow, and other regions take from the river. A region is a 'source' if the region is contributing water to the rivers passing through; conversely, a region is a 'sink' if the region is removing water from the rivers passing through.^[55][r] Identifying sources and sinks is important to scientists that study water movement (hydrology), and also to policy makers that negotiate water sharing issues.^{[56][citation needed]}

The regions of the Nile basin that are water sources are the upstream areas including the Ethiopian Highlands and the African Great Lakes region. The water sink areas are generally found in the downstream regions, including South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt.^[57][s]

The water balance methodology is employed to determine which regions are sources and which are sinks. Water balance is a hydrological principle that states that the water entering a region is balanced by the water leaving a region.^[58][t] The water balance of a region can be represented by the following equation:^[58][u]

${\displaystyle P=ET+\Delta S+D+Q}$

In this formula, the precipitation (P) received is equal to the sum of the water losses: evaporation and transpiration (ET), groundwater recharge (${\displaystyle \Delta S}$), lake-filling (D), and net streamflow (Q). Evaluating this formula will indicate if a region is a source or a sink. Generally, a region is a source if the net streamflow is positive; conversely, a region is a sink if the net streamflow is negative.^[55]

Sources and sinks: countries

The following table summarizes water balance measurements for countries within the Nile basin. Portions of countries outside the Nile Basin are excluded from the values. The "Source or Sink" column shows one of these values:

• Source – The country is a significant water source
• Sink – The country is a significant water sink
• Neutral – The country is not a significant source or sink

Most of the per-basin data is presented as annual measurements (usually in km³); but some data is also presented as an equivalent "depth" value (millimeters per year, covering the entire basin).^[36]

Country water balance (annual)^[1][s][v]

Country	Source or Sink	Basin Area km^2[w]	Precip km^3 (depth)	Evap km^3 (depth)	Water Bal. km^3	Runoff km^3 (depth)
Burundi	Neutral	13,240	14 (1,092 mm)	13 (951 mm)	2	3 (242mm)
DR Congo	Neutral	19,919	23 (1,167mm)	23 (1,142mm)	0	0 (21 mm)
Egypt	Sink	235,108	4 (18 mm)	44 (185 mm)	−39	0 (0 mm)
Eritrea	Neutral	24,427	14 ( 572 mm)	12 (507 mm)	2	0 (16 mm)
Ethiopia	Source	363,775	459 (1,262 mm)	295 (812 mm)	164	138 (380 mm)
Kenya	Source	49,513	76 (1,532 mm)	49 (987 mm)	27	23 (465 mm)
Rwanda	Neutral	20,676	21 ( 993 mm)	20 (966 mm)	1	4 (180 mm)
South Sudan	Sink	617,256	612 ( 991 mm)	757 (1,227 mm)	−146	92 (150 mm)
Sudan	Sink	1,226,660	364 ( 297 mm)	445 (363 mm)	−81	23 (19 mm)
Tanzania	Source	120,506	160 (1,327 mm)	122 (1,014 mm)	38	18 (150 mm)
Uganda	Source	236,763	301 (1,271 mm)	276 (1,165 mm)	25	22 (91mm)
Total (depths are means)		2,927,843	2,048 (699 mm)	2,056 (702 mm)	−8	324 (111 mm)

Sources and sinks: tributaries

Another way of analyzing the water balance of the Nile river is to partition the basin geographically (ignoring the national boundaries). The following tables split the Nile basin into twelve smaller basins, and summarize the water balance data of each of the smaller basins. The data is based on measurements made at a dozen river measurement stations.^[36][x] The stations divide the Nile basin into smaller basins. These basins are each named after their downstream station. For example, the Murchison Falls station (2) is downstream of the Lake Victoria outlet station (1), so the basin between them is named the Murchison Falls basin.^[59]

The basin data in the table is for each individual basin; it is not cumulative. For example, the runoff of station 5 is the runoff for the basin between stations 4 and 5, and excludes runoffs from upstream basins (1,2,3). The measuring stations are listed in the following tables proceeding from upstream to downstream. The discharge "rate" data is an average of the entire year.

White Nile tributary water balance (annual)^[60][s][v]

Basin's downstream station	Source or Sink	Basin Area km^2	Precip km^3 (depth)	Evap km^3 (depth)	Water Bal. km^3	Runoff km^3 (depth)	Discharge km^3 (rate)
1 Lake Victoria outlet[y]	Source	264,259	353 (1,337 mm)	279 (1,055 mm)	74	57 (214 mm)	37 (1,176 m^3/sec)
2 Murchison Falls[z]	Source	85,513	109 (1,276 mm)	94 (1,105 mm)	15	9 (102 mm)	30 (946 m^3/sec)
3 Mongalla[aa]	Neutral	131,691	159 (1,209 mm)	158 (1,201 mm)	1	5 (38 mm)	33 (1,050 m^3/sec)
4 Malakal[ab]	Sink	925,160	798 (863 mm)	957 (1,034 mm)	−159	150 (162 mm)	30 (939 m^3/sec)
5 Khartoum[ac]	Sink	257,130	134 (520 mm)	174 (676 mm)	-40	14 (53 mm)	28 (897 m^3/sec)

Blue Nile tributary water balance (annual)^[60][s][v]

Basin's downstream station	Source or Sink	Basin Area km^2	Precip km^3 (depth)	Evap km^3 (depth)	Water Bal. km^3	Runoff km^3 (depth)	Discharge km^3 (rate)
6 Roseires Dam[61]	Source	188,296	246 (1,309 mm)	142 (752 mm)	105	70 (372 mm)	49 (1,548 m^3/sec)
7 Khartoum[ad]	Neutral	118,651	96 (686 mm)	72 (605 mm)	10	9 (75 mm)	48 (1,513 m^3/sec)

Atbarah tributary water balance (annual)^[60][s][v]

Basin's downstream station	Source or Sink	Basin Area km^2	Precip km^3 (depth)	Evap km^3 (depth)	Water Bal. km^3	Runoff km^3 (depth)	Discharge km^3 (rate)
8 Khasm el Girba[ae]	Source	100,318	95 (951 mm)	66 (656 mm)	30	10 (104 mm)	10 (302 m^3/sec)
9 Mouth of Atbarah River[af]	Neutral	104,051	22 (215 mm)	25 (242 mm)	−3	1 (6 mm)	12 (373 m^3/sec)

Main Nile water balance (annual)^[60][s][v]

Basin's downstream station	Source or Sink	Basin Area km^2	Precip km^3 (depth)	Evap km^3 (depth)	Water Bal. km^3	Runoff km^3 (depth)	Discharge km^3 (rate)
10 Dongola[61]	Neutral	390,180	34 (87 mm)	45 (116 mm)	−11	0 (0 mm)	83 (2,622 m^3/sec)
11 Aswan Dam[61]	Sink	188,011	2 (12 mm)	13 (70 mm)	−10	0 (0 mm)	87 (2,757 m^3/sec)
12 Cairo/Delta[ag]	Sink	145,293	3 (18 mm)	12 (85 mm)	−10	0 (0 mm)	40 (1,251 m^3/sec)

Nilometers

This Nilometer on Roda Island was used to measure the level of the Nile river.^[63]

Measurements of the Nile's flow has always been essential to help Egyptians manage their safety and irrigation. Simple gauges, called nilometers, have been used to measure the level of the Nile for thousands of years.^[63][64] An important nilometer has been in use on Roda Island since at least 622 AD; Egyptians kept records of maximum and minimum river levels from that gauge until 1921.^[63] Modern gauges to measure the river level began to be installed in the 1860s, and gauges that measured the river's current – which provide more accurate flow information – were installed beginning in 1900.^[63]

Ecology

Plants

The Great Lakes region of the Nile Basin includes plants such as the water lily, papyrus, and water hyacinth. The water hyacinth in an invasive species, and has adversely impacted the populations of native species in Lake Kyoga.^[65] Plants common in the Sudd swamp include species that thrive in deep flooding such as Vossia, hippo grass, reed mace, ambatch, and papyrus. The Sudd also hosts species that thrive in shallow flooding such as Oryza, antelope grass, and Phragmites.^[66]

Animals

Fish are abundant in the Nile Basin: the total number of species is estimated at over 800. In the river alone, 128 species are found, belonging to 27 families.^[67] The majority of species belong to the four families: Cichlidae (cichlids), Cyprinidae (carp), Mormyridae (elephantfish), and Mochokidae (catfish).^[68] A large number of Cichlid species are found in the African Great Lakes.^[67]

In addition to fish, animals that live in the water include hippos, crocodiles, and African buffalo. Other water dwellers include molluscs, crabs, and shrimp.^[69] Many animals live in the ecosystems along the river banks, including elephants, antelope, and giraffes.^[69] Snails found in Nile lakes carry parasitic flatforms – known as blood flukes – which are responsible for the schistosomiasis disease that afflicts livestock and humans.^[70]

Birds that live on or near the Nile include herons, kingfishers, ospreys, and various kinds of storks – such as shoebills.^[69] Some of the bird species are endemic to the Nile basin (such as blue-winged goose), while other species have a cosmopolitan distribution (such as Moorhen and osprey).^[71] Several species of heron, ducks, geese, and egrets live in the basin year-round, and 14 species of ducks and geese arrive only for winter residence.^[71] Of the gulls and terns in the basin, the vast majority are migratory. During the past thousand years, the ranges of some species have been reduced, probably due to human encroachment on habitat.^[71]

Conservation and human impact

The Nile Basin was relatively wet and humid from 15 KYA (thousand years ago) to 5 KYA, which enabled the start of large-scale agriculture in the Nile Basin around 5 KYA. The growth of agriculture has had an increasing impact on the environment since then, leading to widespread deforestation and soil erosion.^[72] The impacts were worsened by drier conditions in Africa that started about 4 KYA. These arid conditions led to famines and social disruption, and also to increased environmental degradation.^[72]

Several species of animals have become extinct in the Nile Basin due to human activity. The sacred ibis was important in the ancient Egyptian relgion, and millions of the ibis were ritually sacrificed, leading to the eventual extinction of the species in Egypt. The bird remains common in central and southern Africa.^[73]

The Nile perch was native to several places in Africa, including the Congo, but was not present in the Nile river or its lakes until it was surreptitiously introduced to Lake Victoria in the 1950s to create a fishing stock.^[74][ah] The Nile Perch caused the extinction of over 500 species of cichlids in Lake Victoria, which scientist Les Kaufman described as the first mass extinction of vertebrates that scientists have had the opportunity to observe.^[74][ai]

The satellite lakes of Lake Kyoga are potentially important for future conservation efforts, because they contain at least 60 species of haplochromines, and have not yet been invaded by the Nile Perch.^[70]

Pollution

Historically, the water of the Nile was noted for being drinkable, but in the late 20th century, it became less healthy in certain areas.^[76] Lake Tana is polluted with industrial pollution; Portions of the river near population centers (such as Khartoum and Cairo) are polluted with industrial pollutants and sewage; ships contribute pollutants to the waters; and industrial plants in Egypt dump waste into the river.^[77]

Sources of pollution in the Nile include agricultural, industrial, and household waste. There are 36 industries that discharge their pollution sources directly into the Nile, and 41 into irrigation canals. These types of industries are: chemical, electrical, engineering, fertilizers, food, metal, mining, oil and soap, pulp and paper, refractory, textile and wood. There are over 90 agricultural drains that discharge into the Nile that also include industrial wastewater.^[78]

River pollution is most pronounced between Aswan and the Mediterranean Sea. The pollution there comes from human activities, agricultural runoff, and industrial waste. The river delta contains Egypt's primary oil and gas production facilities, and the chemical industry in the delta is the single largest contributor of toxic waste to the Nile. Concentrations of pollutants increase as the river flows downstream, due to the cumulative effects of pollution sources.^[79] The Nile delta has relatively high levels of heavy metal concentrations. The delta is susceptible to accumulated concentrations because of poor flushing actions, exacerbated by a flat topography and heavy silting in the riverbed.^[80] The northeast region of the delta is the most polluted part of the river in Egypt, and has a high incidence of pancreatic cancer, which may be related to high levels of heavy metals and organchlorine pesticides found in the soil and water.^[81]

In the late 20th century, Lake Victoria experienced increased eutrophication (accumulation of nutrients, usually from fertilizers) resulting in excessive plant growth, which depletes oxygen levels in the water. The eutrophication is due to human activities and has been associated with algal blooms and a rapid proliferation of water hyacinth, which have disrupted the ecosystem.^[82]

Climate and climate change

Further information: Climate change in Egypt

The climate of the Nile Basin is defined by a pronounced gradient: very dry in the north, becoming progressively wetter to the south.^[83] The basin can be divided into nine distinct rainfall regions: the northern regions (Egypt and Sudan) are very dry all year; the middle regions (including Ethiopia) have strong peaks of rainfall in the summer; and the southern regions (around Lake Victoria) have two rainfall peaks – in spring and fall.^[84] The majority of the rainfall in the Nile Basin is associated with the summer monsoon.^[85]

The Nile Basin is experiencing climate changes related to the increasing prevalence of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.^[86] Projections for the 21st century include a 2 to 4°C increase.^[86] The Blue Nile basin in Ethiopia has been experiencing significant changes in temperature and precipitation since the 1970s. In a review published in 2024, scientists predicted that temperatures would continue to rise. Rainfall is fluctuating and impacting crop production, but future trends are uncertain.^[87]

Models of the future climate in the North Africa and Middle East region predict increasing dryness and drought, and increasing variability of precipitation.^[88] The Nile Delta is particularly vulnerable, and the combined action of sea level rise and lack of sediment replenishment (due to dams on the Nile) may cause one third of the Nile Delta to disappear within the next century.^[89]

Geological history

Further information: Sahara § Climate history

Eonile in the Cenozoic era

During the Cenozoic era, the water drainage in northeast Africa (roughly where modern Egypt is) went through three major phases. First, in the late Eocene, the Gilf system drained to the west, then north, and then into the Tethys Sea.^[90] This was followed, in the early Miocene, by the Qena system, in which several fragmentary rivers were formed near the Red Sea, generally flowing to the south.^[90] Finally, the Eonile river was formed in the late Miocene (8 to 6 MYA), which connected the Qena segments into a single river. The Eonile reversed the flow of the Qena, and flowed north into the Mediterranean Sea.^[90]

During the late-Miocene Messinian salinity crisis, when the Mediterranean Sea was a closed basin and evaporated to the point of being empty or nearly so, the Nile eroded its course into a deep valley – cutting the channel down to several hundred meters below world ocean level at Aswan and 2,400 m (7,900 ft) below Cairo.This created a very long and deep canyon which was filled with sediment after the Mediterranean was recreated.^[91]

Since 2 million years ago

After the Eonile was formed about 6 million years ago (MYA), it subsequently evolved through several phases before the modern Nile was formed:^[92]

• Paleo-Nile, formed about 1.7 MYA
• Proto-Nile, formed about 1.5 MYA
• Pre-Nile, formed about 700 KYA (KYA = thousand years ago)
• Neo-Nile, formed about 120 KYA
• Modern Nile, began to form about 30 KYA, when the African Great Lakes region tilted northward, and began draining into the Nile. Around 14 to 12 KYA, the lakes Tana, Albert, and Victoria started to flow southward approximately into the current course of the Nile.^[93]

Human history

Ancient Egyptian civilization

See also: Ancient Egyptian agriculture

A felucca traversing the Nile near Aswan

The Nile was central to the entire ancient Egyptian civilization: it provided life through the crops it watered, and it caused death, when droughts caused crop failures and famine. The Nile encouraged the growth of science and government: irrigation, flood predictions and taxation all required new mathematical and administrative skills. Weather prediction and astronomy also developed as a consequence of the Egyptian's need to understand the river and its floods.^[94] The Nile led the Egyptians to build the world's first major dam – the Sadd el-Kafara ('dam of the infidels') – circa 2600 BC in an attempt to control flooding.^[95][aj] Some peoples migrated from the Sahara and southerly African regions into the early Nile Valley.^[96]

Nile river provided irrigation and transportation that enabled the ancient Egyptians to establish flourishing and long-lived trade with neighbors. They cultivated and traded wheat, flax, papyrus and other crops, contributing to economic stability.^{[97][citation needed]}

The ancient Egyptians were familiar with the course of the Nile upstream to the sixth cataract (present day Khartoum), but apparently were not familiar with the course of the White Nile (or its source) beyond that.^[98][ak]

The ancient Egyptian calendar was based on the flood cycle of the Nile. The year was divided into three seasons, each consisting of four months of thirty days each. The seasons were Akhet (literally, 'innundation'), Peret ('growing'), and Shemu ('harvest'). Akhet was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving a new layer of fertile soil behind; Peret was the growing season; and Shemu was the harvest season when there were no rains.^[99]

Search for the source of the Nile

Further information: European exploration of Africa

John Hanning Speke was the first European to reach Lake Victoria, and he hypothesized that it was the source of the Nile.^{[citation needed]}

Since the times of the ancient Greeks, Europeans have been intensely curious about the source of the Nile and the origin of its floods, yet concrete knowledge about the source of the Nile was not discovered until the late Middle Ages.^[100] Herodotus was a Greek historian who visited Egypt in 457 BC, and traveled up the Nile to Aswan.^[al] In the second century BC, the Greek scientist Eratosthenes drew a map of the Nile from the Mediterranean to Khartoum, and speculated that the source was a collection of lakes.^[101] Other Europeans that inquired or speculated about the source of the Nile included Ptolemy, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Emperor Nero, and Pedro Tafur.^[102] In the 12th century, the Arabian geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi published a book Tabula Rogeriana which showed the Nile flowing from a large lake in Africa’s interior.^[102]

The source of the Blue Nile was established as a result of Portuguese interest in Ethiopia: the Jesuit missionary Pedro Páez visited the source – Gish Abay – in early 17th century, and wrote História da Ethiópia describing his time in Ethiopia. His accounts were not published until 1905, but other authors (including Jerónimo Lobo, James Bruce, and Athanasius Kircher) gave various estimates of the date of Páez's visit to Gish Abay – ranging from 1613 to 1618.^[103]

The source of the White Nile proved to be more difficult to establish than that of the Blue Nile – Lake Victoria was not definitively established as the major source of the White Nile until 250 years after Gish Abay was identified as the Blue Nile's source.^{[citation needed]}

In 1857, John Hanning Speke and Richard Francis Burton started a search for the Nile's source by departing from Zanzibar on the east coast of Africa – rather than traveling upriver from Egypt – and headed westward to the interior of Africa. They reached Lake Tanganyika and determined it was not the source.^[104][am] Speke returned to Africa in 1860 and traveled to Lake Victoria, which he concluded was the source.^[104][an] In 1864, Samuel Baker became the first European to follow the Nile upstream from the Mediterranean Sea to Lake Albert.^[106][ao] In 1874, Henry Morton Stanley confirmed that Lake Victoria was connected to the Nile river by circumnavigating the lake and locating where the Nile flowed out of the lake: at Ripon Falls on the lake's northern shore.^[107]

Efforts to pinpoint the furthermost source of the White Nile began in early 20th century when Richard Kandt suggested that the source was a tributary of the Kagera River in the Nyungwe Forest – the Kagera feeds into Lake Victoria.^[108] The source location was refined in 1969 when a group of researchers from Waseda University identified a specific tributary of the Kagera. In 2006, a group of adventurers rediscovered this source, and placed a large marker on a nearby tree.^[108] In 2009, academics used satellite imagery to further refine the location of the source, placing it at a spring several km from the 1969/2006 source.^[3]

Dams and water politics

Further information: Water politics in the Nile Basin

Pre-colonial era

The ancient Egyptians were proficient at canal-building, which they used to support surface irrigation technologies which simply diverted floodwaters into basins and floodplains. They did not successfully build dams or reservoirs.^[109]

Dams were not successfully built on the Nile until the 19th century, when cotton – irrigated by the Nile waters – became an important cash crop for Egypt. These early dams were built during the rule of Muhammad Ali (ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1848). These first small dams were constructed in the Nile Delta and near Cairo, and acted to extend the growing season of crops. Ali also built canals such as the Mahmoudiyah Canal, started in 1818.^[109]

Colonial era

After the British began their colonial rule of Egypt in 1882, they started additional water projects to enhance the production of the cotton industry and support the rapidly growing Egyptian population.^[110][ap] The first major dam built on the Nile was the Aswan Low Dam, completed in 1902. It's height was raised twice: in 1912 and 1933.^[111] Other dams built under the colonial regime include the Sennar Dam, built between 1914 and 1925 on the Blue Nile in Sudan; and the Jebel Aulia Dam, completed in 1937 near Khartoum.^[112] The primary purpose of the dams built in the 20th century was to support irrigation; hydropower generation was only a secondary goal.^[113][aq]

In 1929, an agreement between Egypt and Sudan was formed.^[114][ar] The agreement provided that Egypt and Sudan utilize 48 and 4 billion cubic meters of the Nile flow per year, respectively; Egypt reserved the right to monitor the Nile flow in the upstream countries; Egypt assumed the right to undertake Nile river related projects without the consent of upper riparian states; and Egypt assumed the right to veto any construction projects that would affect her interests adversely.^[115]

Post-colonial era

The construction of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960s endangered numerous ancient Egyptian monuments. A global effort successfully relocated many of them to higher grounds.

Egypt and Sudan became completely independent from Britain in 1956.^[116][ap] In 1959 Egypt and Sudan updated the 1929 water sharing agreement. The new agreement allocated the water be shared between Egypt and Sudan and at 55.5 and 18.5 billion cubic meters respectively.^[118] Upstream countries within the Nile Basin were excluded from the 1959 agreement – including Ethiopia, which is the source of about 80% of the Nile's water.^[29]

The 1959 agreement included terms permitting Egypt and Sudan to build dams, which they did: Egypt built the Aswan High Dam (completed 1970); Sudan built the Khashm el-Girba Dam (1964), Roseires Dam (1966), Merowe Dam (2009), and Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex complex (2017).^[29][as]

In 1960, Egypt started building the Aswan High Dam (completed in 1970) which stores roughly two years flow of the Nile river.^[120] The dam effectively turned the downstream stretch of the Nile (from the dam to the sea) into a large irrigation canal.^[121] The dam had positive impacts (irrigation, electricity, and manufacturing) and negative impacts (water quality, siltation, schistosomiasis, and displacement of Nubians).^[122][123]

The Aswan High Dam flooded a large area of the Nile valley, and would have submerged several important historical monuments. An international campaign to save some monuments from becoming submerged by the new reservoir successfully saved some monuments, including the Abu Simbel temples.^[124] The Aswan High Dam also forced the relocation of many Nubians that lived in the valley innundated by the new reservoir. The Nubians were removed from their ancestral homelands, and many forced to immigrate to cities in Egypt and Sudan.^[125]

Late 20th century disagreements and negotiations

Throughout the 20th century, there was a marked imbalance in political power within the Nile Basin: Egypt and Sudan in the north wielded more power than other ten nations to the south.^[126] After Egypt and Sudan created the 1959 agreement, several of the upstream nations (including Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia) began to voice objections to the terms of the agreement, and argued that they were not bound by the agreement because they were not parties to it.^[127] The arguments of the upstream nations were that the dams built by Egypt and Sudan protected those two countries from drought, famine, and floods, yet upstream countries such as Ethiopia and were still subject to droughts and famine.^[128][at] For example, the Aswan High Dam generated about 10 billion kilowatt hours per year; and enabled Egyptian farmers to cultivate three harvests per year, compared to a single harvest before the dam.^[130] Egyptian leaders often stated that they were willing to employ military force to protect their rights under the 1959 agreement.^[131]

In the late 20th century, African nations participated in several efforts to establish water-sharing policies – including the Undugu Commission (active from 1983 to 1993) and TECCONILE (active 1993 to 1998) – but were not successful in creating long-term agreements.^[132]

In 1999, nine of the ten^[au] Nile Basin countries – Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda – established the Nile Basin Initiative to promote peaceful dialog regarding issues related to the Nile Basin.^[134]

Power shift to upstream nations

The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, completed in 2025, generates over 5 gigawatts.^[135]

Since the colonial era, two downstream nations – Egypt and Sudan – exerted control over the Nile's waters from a position of dominance; but at the start of the 21st century, power shifted to the upstream nations.^[126] In 2008, Ethiopia built the Tekezé Dam without seeking permission of Egypt or Sudan.^[136] In 2010, five upstream countries – Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Kenya^[av] – signed a new agreement – the Cooperative Framework Agreement – which moved towards allocating Nile waters in a manner that benefited upstream countries. Kenya was motivated to sign the agreement because it had plans to pump water out of Lake Victoria for irrigation. The 2010 agreement was opposed by Egypt and Sudan.^[138] In 2011, South Sudan Became independent from Sudan, becoming the eleventh country in the Nile Basin. In subsequent water disputes, South Sudan allied with the upstream nations rather than with Sudan.^[12]

In 2011, Ethiopia announced plans to build a large dam on the Blue Nile near the border with Sudan. The dam was later named the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD).^[139] Ethiopia viewed the GERD as essential to the nation's future, because the electrical power generated by the dam would enable them to significantly increase their propsperity. Egypt was concerned that the dam will imperil the irrigation of their crops because Egypt already uses far more water than enters the country, and they are concerned that the dam would exacerbate that shortfall. Sudan was concerned about safety and water supply.^[140] After the dam was announced, Egyptian president Mohamed Morsi hinted that military strikes on Ethiopia were an option,^[139] and Sudan and Egypt conducted several joint military exercises.^[141]

Numerous negotiations and mediations between Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt were held while the dam was constructed and the reservoir was filled.^[142] In 2015 the countries signed the "Declaration of Principles" in which they agreed to cooperate.^[143][aw] In 2019, the United States hosted talks between the involved nations.^[143] In 2020, the African Union started facilitating talks.^[144] In 2020, Egypt asked the United Nations Security Council to intervene, but it declined to do so.^[145] In 2021 and 2022, the UAE hosted talks.^[146] Construction of the GERD dam completed in 2020, and in 2025 the reservoir was filled and most of the dam's generators were producing electricity.^{[citation needed]}

Economy

Agriculture

The Nile delta is especially productive, and accounts for two thirds of Egypt's agricultural output.^[22]

Fishing

The entire Nile river and its associated lakes, is a fishery that supplies a major source of food for peoples that live in the basin.^[113] Some species, particularly, Nile Perch are exported to Europe.^[113] Fish farming is performed at some places in the basin.^[113][147] Overfishing has been encountered in several locations.^[113][148]

Power generation

Major hydropower dams on the Nile

Transportation

The Nile has long been used to transport goods along its length.^{[citation needed]} Winter winds blow south, up river, so ships could sail up river using sails and down river using the flow of the river.^{[citation needed]} While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the 1970 completion of the Aswan Dam ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil, fundamentally changing farming practices. The Nile supports much of the population living along its banks, enabling Egyptians to live in otherwise inhospitable regions of the Sahara.^{[citation needed]} The river's flow is disturbed at several points by the Cataracts of the Nile which form an obstacle to navigation by boats.^{[citation needed]} The Sudd also forms a formidable navigation obstacle and impedes water flow, to the extent that Sudan had once attempted to build the Jonglei Canal to bypass the swamp.^[149][150]

Tourism and recreation

The portion of the Nile between Cairo and Asawan is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as feluccas. Many cruise ships ply the route between Luxor and Aswan, stopping at Edfu and Kom Ombo along the way. Security concerns have limited cruising on the northernmost portion for many years.^{[citation needed]}

The Nile Basin is home to several parks and nature reserves, including Uganda's Murchison Falls National Park, Rwenzori Mountains National Park, and Queen Elizabeth National Park. South Sudan has the Boma National Park, Bandingilo National Park, and Zeraf Game Reserve. Sudan contains the Jabel Al Hassania Nature Reserve. The Bandingilo National Park, near the White Nile, is in South Sudan. Egypt has Wadi al Hitan and Gilf Kebir National Park.^{[citation needed]}

In culture

Art and literature

Nilotic landscapes, such as this 2nd century Roman mosaic, often displayed crocodiles and hippos.

Personification of the River Nile, a colossal marble sculpture from c. 2nd century AD Rome – now in the Vatican Museum

A tune, Hymn to the Nile, was created and sung by the ancient Egyptian peoples about the flooding of the Nile River and all of the miracles it brought to Ancient Egyptian civilization.^[151]

Landscape artwork featuring the Nile river – either directly or allegorically – are called Nilotic landscapes. The term primarily designates artwork from ancient Greek or ancient Rome, though it is occasionally used to refer to scenes of hunting and fishing in Egyptian art. Nilotic landscapes are characterized by a river scene with rich and abundant plant and animal life, much of which is native to Egypt. Common iconographic elements include papyrus, palm trees, fish and water birds, and in some cases felines, monkeys, and/or crocodile. Imperial Roman scenes have a larger emphasis on fierce animals, usually including crocodiles and hippopotamus.^[152]

A notable representation of the Nile in art is the Personification of the River Nile, a colossal marble sculpture from c. 2nd century AD Rome – now in the Vatican Museum.^[ax] The Nile is represented as a reclining man holding sheaves of wheat in his hand. At his side are a sphinx – representing Egypt – and sixteen children which allude to sixteen cubits (the ideal height of the annual flood). At the base are crocodiles, pygmies, and hippopotamus.^[154]

The Nile is seen in artworks that feature four major rivers of the world: Nile (Africa), Danube (Europe), Ganges (Asia), and Río de la Plata (Americas). Examples include the painting The Four Rivers of Paradise by Peter Paul Rubens (1615),^[155] and the fountain in Rome Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1651).^[156] In Bernini's fountain, the Nile is depicted as a man with his head coverd in a cloth, symbolizing the mystery of the unknown source of the Nile.^[157]

Shakespeare has the character Marc Antony describe the Nile floods in the play Antony and Cleopatra: "Thus do they, sir: they take the flow o’ the Nile By certain scales i’ the pyramid; they know, By the height, the lowness, or the mean, if dearth Or foison follow: the higher Nilus swells, The more it promises: as it ebbs, the seedsman Upon the slime and ooze scatters his grain, And shortly comes to harvest."^[158]

Myth and religion

The Egyptian god Hapy was responsible for the annual Nile floods.

The Hebrew Bible contains a story about the infant Moses being rescued from the Nile.

The cosmology of the ancient Egyptians was cyclic in nature: rather than viewing life as having a start and end, it was viewed as a perpetual cycle. This cyclic life-view was rooted in nature that surrounded the Egyptians, the daily passage of the sun and the annual floods of the Nile.^[159] The Nile river served as an important dividing line between the living world and the netherworld: the east side was for the living, and the west side was for the dead.^[160] The Nile was such a dominant source of water for the Egyptians, that they sometimes referred to rain as 'Nile in the sky'.^[161]

In the ancient Egyptian religion, no single god personified the Nile in the same way that the god Ra personified the sun.^[162] Gods associated with the river included Hapy (god of the annual floods) and Khnum (god of the first cataract), who were jointly responsible for producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the country's farmland.^[163] The Egyptian religion placed the source of the Nile's annual flood at Elephantine Island (at the first cataract) where the floodwaters were believed to flow up out of the netherworld.^[164]

Isis was a major diety in the Egyptian religion who was strongly associated with the Nile river. Cults based on Isis spread from Egypt into Europe in the second century BC.^[165] An example of the influence of the cult of Isis in Europe is the Nile mosaic of Palestrina, located in Rome and dated to first century BC: the 4 by 3 meter mosaic depicts a detailed Nilotic landscape.^[100]

In Greek mythology, Nilus is the god of the Nile river, one of thousands of river-god children of Titans Oceanus and his sister-wife Tethys.^[166] Nilus was father of the naiad Memphis, mythical founder of the city of Memphis.^[167]

The Nile river is mentioned in the Bible dozens of times, including a story in the Book of Exodus about the infant Moses being placed in a basket in the river.^[168] Some authorities identify the river Gihon – which is mentioned in the Book of Genesis as one of the four Rivers of Paradise  – as the Nile river.^[168] A story particularly important to the Coptic peoples of Egypt is found in the Book of Matthew: it recounts how Joseph and Mary fled to Egypt and lived near the Nile for several years, thus avoiding Herod.^[168]

References

Footnotes

1. The source location was initially determined in 1969 by a group of researchers from Waseda University. In 2006, a group of adventurers rediscovered this source, and placed a large marker on a nearby tree. In 2009, academics used satellite imagery to further refine the location of the source, placing it at a nearby spring, several km from the 1969/2006 source.^[2]
2. Barh is 'sea; Narh is 'river'.
3. In 2011, South Sudan broke way from Sudan, becoming the eleventh country in the Nile Basin.^[12]
4. Some have described these high sources as the "true source" of the Nile.^[15]
5. This southernmost source is at 3°54′54″S 29°50′16″E / 3.914926960316476°S 29.83791290756115°E / -3.914926960316476; 29.83791290756115^[16]
6. The source of the Blue Nile is about 75 km south of Lake Tana, at 10°58′12″N 37°11′55″E / 10.9699262917°N 37.198626789087°E / 10.9699262917; 37.198626789087.^[18]
7. The Rukarara River leads to the Mwogo River, which leads to the Nyabarongo River, which leads to the Kagera River, which drains into Lake Victoria.
8. Measured by area, not volume.
9. The White Nile River – distinguished from the White Nile region – is the portion of the Nile that extends from Lake Victoria to Khartoum.
10. The segment of the Nile river between the Blue/White confluence and the Mediterranean is called the main Nile or the Sharan Nile.^[21]
11. Also transliterated as Sablūkah or Sababka.
12. Lake Nasser is called 'Lake Nubia' in Sudan.
13. Most of the sediment is deposited at the south end of Lake Nasser, where the Nile enters the reservoir.^[25]
14. The Atbarah River is sometimes called the Black Nile.^[29]
15. Most precipitation in the Bahr el Ghazal basin is lost to evaporation before reaching the Nile.^[33]
16. Measured at Aswan.^[37]
17. The annual flow of the river at Aswan is about 84 cubic km; and the capacity of the Aswan High Dam's reservoir is about 160 cubic km.^[50]
18. For clarity, the definitions of source and sink have been simplified here. The technical definitions of source and sink used by scientists are more complicated than presented here.
19. Data does not include impacts of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, completed in 2025
20. Another term for the 'water balance' principle is 'water budget'.^[58]
21. There are many water balance equations; the one presented here is a fairly simple one.^[58]
22. Hydrology Table Legend:
    • Precip - Precipitation (P)
    • Evap- Evapotranspiration (ET)
    • Water Bal - Precip-ET
    • Discharge - River flow at measuring station (average of the entire year)
    • Source or Sink - Is basin a significant source or sink of water?
23. Basin area is the Nile basin within the country.
24. For clarity, the names of some stations have been changed to use the names of nearby major geographic features. For example, the Kilo3 station is presented here as "Mouth of the Atbarah River". The Paara station is presented here as "Murchison Falls". The "Owen Reservoir" station is presented here as "Lake Victoria outlet".
25. Measured at Nalubaale dam.^[61]
26. Measured at Paara (Uganda), slightly downstream from Murchison Falls.^[61]
27. Measured at Mongalla, South Sudan, about 40 km downstream (north) of Juba.^[61]
28. Malakal is after the confluence of the White Nile and Sobat. It includes both Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat River tributaries.^[61]
29. Measured at Al Mogran before the Blue Nile confluence (includes only the White Nile).^[61]
30. Includes only Blue Nile (excludes White Nile).^[61]
31. Roughly at the midpoint of the Atbarah river.^[61]
32. Measured at the Kilo3 station, where the Atbarah joins the Nile.^[61]
33. Station is El Ekhsase, near Cairo. Basin data includes the Nile Delta, even though the delta is downstream of the station.^[62]
34. The Nile Perch was introduced to Lake Victoria by Ugandan authorities in a clandestine effort to create a new fishery; but this has never been acknowledged by Uganda.^[74]
35. There were small signs of cichlid recovery around the year 2000.^[75]
36. The Sadd el-Kafara dam failed before it was completed, and never functioned as a dam.
37. The ancient Egyptians were apparently familiar with the Blue Nile's course, up to Lake Tana.^[98]
38. Herodotus was puzzled by the Nile floods, which began in the summer – a season when Egypt had no rainfall.^[40]
39. During his first trip to Africa with Burton, Speke made a side trip on which he briefly saw lake Victoria, but was unable to perform any measurements or draw conclusions about whether it was the source.
40. Speke did not locate a river flowing out of Lake Victoria, so there were some – such as Richard Francis Burton – who disputed Speke's claim.^[105]
41. Baker gave Lake Albert its name.^[106]
42. Egypt became nominally independent in 1922, but Britain maintained control of foreign policy and kept armed forces near the Suez Canal. Full independence was achieved in 1957 after the Suez Crisis.^[117]
43. Later dams, such as the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, completed in 2025, had power generation as their primary goal.
44. The 1929 agreement was an exchange of letters between Mohamed Mahmoud Pasha (prime minister of Egypt) and the British High Commission of Egypt (representing Sudan). No other countries from the Nile Basin were involved in the agreement.^[112]
45. The 1959 agreement also provided for financial compensation paid from Egypt to Sudan for the displacement of Nubians as a result of the new reservoir behind the Aswan High Dam.^[119]
46. According to Sundeep Waslekar, Nile Basin droughts in the 20th century affected around 170 million people and killed half a million people.^[129] From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.^[129]
47. South Sudan was not yet a country in 1999, but joined the NBI in 2012.^[12] Eritrea has declined to participate in the Nile Basin Initiative.^[133]
48. Kenya was not one of the initial signatories, but signed it soon after it was created.^[137]
49. The 2015 agreement stipulated that the three countries would use the Nile's waters in a fair and appropriate manner; and they agreed on an approach to filling the reservoir and operating the dam.^[143]
50. A 'colossal' sculpture is one twice life size or larger.^[153]

Citations

1. Senay 2014, Table 5.
2. • Liu 2009.
   • Tvedt 2021, pp. 277–278.
3. Liu 2009.
4. "Water Accounting in the Nile River Basin". United Nations.
5. The river's outflow from that lake occurs at 12°02′09″N 37°15′53″E / 12.03583°N 37.26472°E / 12.03583; 37.26472
6. Hurst 2025.
7. • Badawi 2003, pp. 717.
   • Hurst 2025.
8. Dumont 2009, p. 6.
9. Hamilton 2016, p. 66.
10. Murray 1923, p. 8.
11. Allan 2009, p. 753.
12. Ranjan 2024, p. 18.
13. Sutcliffe 2009, p. 355.
14. • Eggermont 2009, pp. 243–246.
    • Tvedt 2021, p. 282.
15. Sutcliffe 2009, pp. 340–341.
16. Tvedt 2021, pp. 300–301.
17. Tvedt 2021, p. 6.
18. Tvedt 2021, pp. 323–324.
19. Eggermont 2009, p. 255.
20. • Hurst 2025.
    • Tvedt 2021, p. 5. Arabic translation.
21. • Sutcliffe 2009, p. 360.
    • Williams 2009, p. 62.
22. Hamza 2009, p. 75.
23. • Hurst 2025.
    • Talbot 2009, pp. 37–38, 57.
24. Hamza 2009, p. 93.
25. El-Shabrawy 2009, p. 125.
26. McKenna 2025.
27. • Tvedt 2021, pp. 274, 339. Blue Nile Falls.
    • Tvedt 2021, pp. 116, 135. Roseires Dam.
    • Tvedt 2021, p. 341. Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.
    • Tvedt 2021, pp. 118, 131, 348. Sennar Dam.
28. Senay 2014, Table 3.
29. Ranjan 2024, p. 24.
30. • Hurst 2025.
    • Dumont 2009, p. 7.
    • Sutcliffe 2009, p. 339.
31. • Tvedt 2021, pp. 321, 336–337. Tekezé Dam.
    • Sutcliffe 2009, p. 359. Khashm el-Girba Dam.
    • Hafez 2024. Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex.
32. "Baḥr al-Ghazāl" Britannica.
33. Sutcliffe 2009, p. 352-354.
34. • Sutcliffe 2009, p. 352-354.
    • Dumont 2009, p. 6.
35. Shahin 2002, p. 276.
36. Senay 2014.
37. Tvedt 2021, p. 4.
38. • Tvedt 2021, p. 4.
    • Sutcliffe 2009, p. 340.
39. Williams 2009, pp. 61, 70.
40. Williams 2009, p. 70.
41. Senay 2014, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5. Based on annual discharge figures: Blue Nile 48 km³; White Nile 28 km³; Atbarah 12 km³.
42. Sutcliffe 2009, p. 346.
43. Sutcliffe 2009, p. 339.
44. Okidi 1994, pp. 321, 325, 330, 341.
45. Sutcliffe 2009, p. 357.
46. Tvedt 2021, p. 5.
47. • Hurst 2025. Summer flood: 25.1 billion ft³ per day, or 0.71 km³ per day.
    • Senay 2014, Table 4. Annual mean measured at Dongola station: 83 km³ per year, or 0.23 km³ per day.
48. Sutcliffe 2009, pp. 339, 356.
49. • El-Shabrawy 2009, p. 125.
    • Tvedt 2021, p. 5.
50. • El-Shabrawy 2009, p. 125.
    • Senay 2014, p. 8644, section 3.5.4.
51. Marshall et al.,"Late Pleistocene and Holocene environmental and climatic change from Lake Tana, source of the Blue Nile" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2006. Retrieved 30 September 2006.
52. "Two Niles Meet: Image of the Day". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 26 April 2013. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2017.
53. Sutcliffe 2009, p. 359.
54. Lemma 2019, p. 11.
55. Senay 2014, p. 8631, Equation (4).
56. Senay 2014, p. 8648, Section 4.
57. Senay 2014, pp. 8641, 8648, Figure 7; Sections 3.5.5, 4; Tables 3,4,5 and 6.
58. Healy 2007, pp. 5–6.
59. Senay 2014, Sec. 2.2.
60. Senay 2014, Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink).
61. Senay 2014, Figure 1, Table 2.
62. Senay 2014, Figure 1, Table 2, Sec 2.2.5.
63. Sutcliffe 2009, pp. 340, 361.
64. Talling 2009, p. 25.
65. • Green 2009, p. 205.
    • Dumont 2009, p. 13.
66. • Sutcliffe 2009, p. 350.
    • Hurst 2025.
67. • Witte 2009, p. 647, 651-652.
    • Green 2009, p. 205.
68. Witte 2009, p. 647.
69. • Tvedt 2021, p. 189.
    • Hurst 2025.
    • Van Damme & Bocxlaer 2009, pp. 585.
    • Dumont 2009, pp. 10–11.
    • Green & El-Moghraby 2009, pp. 193, 196–197, 201–202.
70. Green 2009, p. 205.
71. Green 2009a, p. 705.
72. Williams 2009a, p. 771.
73. Green 2009a, p. 718.
74. • Marshall 2018, pp. 1542–1543, 1546–1548 .
    • Tvedt 2021, p. 216.
    • Lehman 2009, p. 227.
    • Green 2009a, p. 718.
75. Lehman 2009, pp. 228, 231.
76. • Dumont 2009, p. 18.
    • Talling 2009a, p. 368.
77. • Dumont 2009, p. 18.
    • El-Sheekh 2009, pp. 395–396.
78. "Nile Basin National Water Quality". Nile Basin Initiative.
79. • Hegab 2025.
    • Hamza 2009, p. 75.
80. Abotalib 2023.
81. Soliman 2006.
82. • & El-Sheekh 2009, p. 395.
    • Tvedt 2021, p. 18.
83. Chamberlin 2009, p. 307.
84. Chamberlin 2009, pp. 314–315.
85. Chamberlin 2009, pp. 307=-310.
86. Chamberlin 2009, pp. 307, 327–329.
87. Wedajo 2024.
88. Driouech 2020.
89. Tvedt 2021, pp. 52-53. Tvedt cites data from the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change..
90. Hamza 2009, pp. 77–78.
91. • Warren 2006, p. 352.
    • El Mahmoudi & Gabr 2008, pp. 53–67.
    • Embabi 2018, pp. 39–45.
92. • Said 1981, pp. 12–13, 17, 24, 40, 46, 51, 61.
    • Van Damme & Bocxlaer 2009, p. 606.
93. • Van Damme & Bocxlaer 2009, p. 606
    • Williams 2009, p. 61,70
94. Tvedt 2021, pp. 9–10.
95. Tvedt 2021, pp. 11–12.
96. Holl, Augustin. General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited. pp. 355–375.
97. Tvedt 2021, p. 15-16.
98. • Assmann 2001, pp. 54–55.
    • Hurst 2025.
99. • Allen 2000, p. 103.
    • Springer 2010, p. 8.
100. Tvedt 2021, p. 2.
101. • Hurst 2025.
     • Tvedt 2021, p. 2.
     • Williams 2009, p. 70.
102. Tvedt 2021, pp. 178–179.
103. Tvedt 2021, pp. 324.
104. Tvedt 2021, pp. 173–174.
105. Burton, R. F. (14 November 1864). "Lake Tanganyika, Ptolemy's Western Lake-Reservoir of the Nile". Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London. 9 (1). Blackwell Publishing: 6–14. doi:10.2307/1799295. JSTOR 1799295.
106. Tvedt 2021, p. 175.
107. Tvedt 2021, pp. 174–175.
108. Tvedt 2021, pp. 277–278.
109. Dumont 2009, p. 15.
110. • Dumont 2009, p. 15.
     • Tvedt 2021, pp. 59–64.
111. • Dumont 2009, p. 15.
     • Tvedt 2021, pp. 62–63.
     • Hurst 2025.
112. Ranjan 2024, p. 22.
113. Dumont 2009, p. 17.
114. • Tvedt 2021, pp. 63–64.
     • Roach 2025, p. 5.
115. • Ranjan 2024, p. 22.
     • Tvedt 2021, pp. 63–64.
     • Roach 2025, p. 5.
116. Ranjan 2024, pp. 22–23.
117. Tvedt 2021, pp. 63–68.
118. • Tvedt 2021, pp. 122–123.
     • Ranjan 2024, pp. 22–24.
119. Ranjan 2024, pp. 22–24.
120. • Dumont 2009, pp. 15–16.
     • El-Shabrawy 2009, p. 125.
     • Hurst 2025.
121. Dumont 2009, p. 16.
122. El-Shabrawy 2009, pp. 148–151.
123. Talling 2009, p. 29.
124. Fleming & Lothian 1997, pp. 135–136.
125. Hassan, Fekri A. (28 November 2007). "The Aswan Dam and the International Rescue Nubia Campaign". The African Archaeological Review. 24 (3/4): 73–94. doi:10.1007/s10437-007-9018-5. JSTOR 40743449.
126. • Ranjan 2024, pp. 20–21, 25, 32–33.
     • Tvedt 2021, pp. 336–337, 341–342.
     • Allan 2009, pp. 764–768.
127. Ranjan 2024, pp. 24–25.
128. Tvedt 2021, pp. 71, 339–344.
129. Waslekar 2009, p. 2.
130. Tvedt 2021, p. 70.
131. • Ranjan 2024, pp. 24–25.
     • Tvedt 2021, p. 82.
132. Ranjan 2024, pp. 26–27.
133. Tvedt 2021, p. 312.
134. • "The Nile Basin Trust Fund". World Bank Group.
     • Dumont 2009, p. 16.
135. Endeshaw 2025.
136. Tvedt 2021, pp. 336–337.
137. Tvedt 2021, pp. 244–245.
138. • Tvedt 2021, pp. 244–245.
     • Ranjan 2024, pp. 25–26.
     • Roussi 2020.
139. Ranjan 2024, p. 27.
140. Ranjan 2024, p. 30.
141. İlkbahar & Mercan 2023, pp. 1165–1166.
142. Roach 2025, pp. 1–2.
143. Ranjan 2024, p. 28.
144. Ranjan 2024, pp. 29–31.
145. Ranjan 2024, pp. 30–32.
146. Ranjan 2024, pp. 30, 33.
147. El-Shabrawy & Dumont 2009, p. 119.
148. Vijverberg 2009, p. 182.
149. Shahin 2002, pp. 286–287.
150. "Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River" Archived 5 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. October 1933. Popular Science (short article on top-right of page with map).
151. Halsall 1998.
152. • Betancourt 2007, pp. 93, 122, 146, 190
     • Versluys 2002, pp. 3–4, 23, 28–30, 43–50, 55, 65
153. "Colossal". The Concise Oxford Dictionary.
154. • Schama 1995, pp. 282–289.
     • "Nile". Vatican Museum.
     • "Personification of the River Nile". Yale Peabody Museum.
155. Rosenthal 2005, pp. 41–42.
156. Schama 1995, pp. 289–305.
157. Schama 1995, p. 302.
158. Tvedt 2021, p. 59.
159. • Allen 2000, p. 104.
     • Assmann 2001, pp. 63–64.
     • Fleming & Lothian 1997, p. 15, 108.
     • Tvedt 2021, p. 10.
160. • Tvedt 2021, p. 10.
     • Assmann 2001, p. 74.
     • Fleming & Lothian 1997, pp. 29, 95.
161. Assmann 2001, p. 59.
162. Hornung 1982, pp. 77–79.
163. • Hart 2005, pp. 61, 85–86.
     • Tvedt 2021, p. 9.
     • Fleming & Lothian 1997, pp. 30–31.
164. Assmann 2001, pp. 54–55, 63.
165. Tvedt 2021, p. 1.
166. Hesiod, Theogony 338 & 366–370; Hyginus, Fabulae Preface
167. Smith 1878, pp. 554, 564, 866.
168. Tvedt 2021, pp. 20–22.

Sources

Books

• Allan, John (2009). "Nile Basin Asymmetries: A Closed Fresh Water Resource, Soil Water Potential, the Political Economy and Nile Transboundary Hydropolitics". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 749–770. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Allen, James P (2000). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521774837.

• Assmann, Jan (2001) [1984]. The Search for God in Ancient Egypt. Lorton, David transl. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801487293.

• Badawi, Mohammad, ed. (2003). Al-Muhit Oxford Study Dictionary: English-Arabic. Academia. ISBN 995330050X. Retrieved 31 January 2026.

• Betancourt, P.P (2007). Introduction to Aegean Art. Institute for Aegean Prehistory. ISBN 9781623030841. Retrieved 1 January 2026.

• Chamberlin, Paul; et al. (2009). "Nile Basin Climates". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 307–333. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Dumont, Henri (2009). "A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–22. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Eggermont, Hilde; et al. (2009). "Rwenzori Mountains (Mountains of the Moon): Headwaters of the Nile". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 243–262. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• El-Shabrawy, Gamal; Dumont, Henri (2009). "The Fayum Depression". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 95–124. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• El-Shabrawy, Gamal (2009). "Lake Nasser-Nubia". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 125–156. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• El-Sheekh, Mostafa (2009). "River Nile Pollutants and Their Effect on Life Forms and Water Quality". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 395–406. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Embabi, N.S. (2018). "Remarkable Events in the Life of the River Nile". Landscapes and Landforms of Egypt. World Geomorphological Landscapes. pp. 39–45. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65661-8_4. ISBN 9783319656595. ISSN 1866-7538. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2020.

• Fleming, Fergus; Lothian, Alan (1997). The Way to Eternity: Egyptian Myth. Duncan Baird. ISBN 0705435032.

• Green, Jim (2009). "The Kyoga Catchment". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 205–214. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Green, Jim (2009a). "Birds of the Nile". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 705–720. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Green, Jim; El-Moghraby, Asim (2009). "Swamps of the Upper White Nile". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 193–204. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Hamilton, Alan (2016). Luganda Dictionary and Grammar. Alan Hamilton. ISBN 9780954149611. Retrieved 31 January 2026.

• Hamza, Waleed (2009). "The Nile Delta". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 75–94. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Hart, George (2005). The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0415344956. Retrieved 15 January 2026.

• Hornung, Erik (1982) [1971]. Conceptions of God in Egypt: The One and the Many. Translated from German by John Baines. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801412233. Retrieved 15 January 2026.

• Lehman, John (2009). "Lake Victoria". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 215–242. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Murray, G. W. (1923). An English-Nubian Comparative Dictionary. Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press. Retrieved 15 January 2026.

• Okidi, C. O. (1994). "History of the Nile and Lake Victoria Basins through Treaties". In Howell, P.P.; Alan, J. J. (eds.). The Nile: Sharing a Scarce Resource. Cambridge University Press. pp. 321–350. ISBN 978-0-521-45040-9. Retrieved 12 January 2026.

• Roach, Steven (2025). "Introduction: Nile Basin politics and its Challenges". In Roach, Steven; Hudson, Derrick (eds.). Nile Basin Politics: From Coordinated to Cooperative Peace. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 1–16. doi:10.4337/9781803927176. ISBN 9781803927176. Retrieved 15 January 2026.

• Rosenthal, Lisa (2005). Gender, Politics, and Allegory in the Art of Rubens. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521842440. Retrieved 15 December 2025.

• Said, Rushdi (1981). The geological evolution of the River Nile. Springer Verlag. ISBN 3-540-90484-0. Retrieved 15 December 2025.

• Schama, Simon (1995). Landscape and Memory. A.A. Knopf. ISBN 9780679402558. Retrieved 15 December 2025.

• Shahin, Mamdouh (2002). Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa. Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-1-4020-0866-5. Retrieved 7 January 2026.

• Smith, William (1878). A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography,mythology and Geography. Harper & Brothers. LCCN 04035163. Retrieved 7 January 2026.

• Springer, Lisa (2010). Art and Culture of Ancient Egypt. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4358-3589-4. Retrieved 7 January 2026.

• Sutcliffe, John; et al. (2009). "The Hydrology of the Nile Basin". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 334–364. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Talbot, Michael; et al. (2009). "Cenozoic Evolution of the Nile Basin". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 37–60. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Talling, Jack (2009). "History of Scientific Research". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 23–34. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Talling, Jack (2009a). "Physical and Chemical Water characteristics". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 367–394. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Tvedt, Terje (2021). The Nile: History's Greatest River. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7556-1680-0. Retrieved 10 December 2025.

• Van Damme, Dirk; Bocxlaer, Bert (2009). "Freshwater Molluscs of the Nile Basin, Past and Present". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 585–630. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Versluys, M. J. (2002). Aegyptiaca Romana : Nilotic Scenes and the Roman views of Egypt. Brill Publishers. ISBN 9004124403. Retrieved 15 January 2026.

• Vijverberg, Jacobus; et al. (2009). "Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 163–192. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Warren, John (2006). Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons. Springer. ISBN 3-540-26011-0.

• Williams, Martin; et al. (2009). "Late Quaternary Environments in Nile Basin". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 61–72. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Williams, Martin (2009a). "Human Impact on Nile Basin". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 771–780. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

• Witte, Frans; et al. (2009). "Fish Fauna of the Nile". In Dumont, Henri (ed.). The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. Monographiae Biologicae. Springer Netherlands. pp. 647–676. ISBN 978-1-4020-9726-3. Retrieved 1 December 2025.

Journals and websites

• El Mahmoudi, A.; Gabr, A. (2008). "Geophysical surveys to investigate the relation between the Quaternary Nile channels and the Messinian Nile canyon at East Nile Delta, Egypt". Arabian Journal of Geosciences. 2 (1): 53–67. doi:10.1007/s12517-008-0018-9. ISSN 1866-7511. S2CID 128432827.

• Abotalib, Abotalib; et al. (2023). "Irreversible and Large-Scale Heavy Metal Pollution Arising from Increased Damming and Untreated Water Reuse in the Nile Delta". Earth's Future. 11 (3) e2022EF002987. American Geophysical Union. Bibcode:2023EaFut..1102987A. doi:10.1029/2022EF002987. ISSN 2328-4277. Retrieved 31 December 2025.

• Driouech, Fatima; et al. (1 September 2020). "Assessing Future Changes of Climate Extreme Events in the CORDEX-MENA Region Using Regional Climate Model ALADIN-Climate". Earth Systems and Environment. 4 (3). Springer Nature: 477–492. Bibcode:2020ESE.....4..477D. doi:10.1007/s41748-020-00169-3. ISSN 2509-9434.

• Endeshaw, Dawit (9 September 2025). "Ethiopia Opens Africa's Largest hydroelectric Dam to Egyptian Protest". Reuters. Retrieved 20 January 2026.

• Hafez, Ahmed; et al. (2024). "Assessing the Influences of Future Water Development Projects in Tekeze-Atbara-Setit Basin on the Nile River Inflow at Aswan, Egypt". Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies. 56 102007. Elsevier. Bibcode:2024JHyRS..5602007H. doi:10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.102007. ISSN 2214-5818. Retrieved 31 December 2025.

• Halsall, Paul (1998). "Hymn to the Nile, c. 2100 BCE". Internet Ancient History Sourcebook. Fordham University. Retrieved 20 November 2016.

• Healy, R. W.; et al. (2007). "Water Budgets: Foundations for Effective Water-resources and Environmental Management}" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 14 January 2026.

• Hegab, Mahmoud; et al. (March 2025). "Evaluating the Spatial Pattern of Water Quality of the Nile River". Scientific Reports. 15 7626. Nature Portfolio. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-89982-2. ISSN 2045-2322. Retrieved 31 December 2025.

• Hurst, Harold Edwin; et al. (2025). "Nile River". Britannica. Retrieved 11 December 2025.

• İlkbahar, Hasan; Mercan, Muhammed Hüseyin (2023). "Hydro-Hegemony, Counter-Hegemony and Neoclassical Realism on the Nile Basin: An Analysis of Egypt's Response to the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD)". Journal of Asian and African Studies. 60 (2): 7–8. doi:10.1177/00219096231188953. ISSN 0021-9096. First published online 1 August 2023.

• Lemma, Hanibal; et al. (2019). "Bedload Transport Measurements in the Gilgel Abay River, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia". Journal of Hydrology. 577 123968. Elsevier. Bibcode:2019JHyd..57723968L. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.123968. ISSN 1879-2707. Retrieved 31 December 2025.

• Liu, Shaochuang; et al. (1 March 2009). "Pinpointing the sources and measuring the lengths of the principal rivers of the world". International Journal of Digital Earth. 2 (1): 80–87. Bibcode:2009IJDE....2...80L. doi:10.1080/17538940902746082. ISSN 1753-8955. S2CID 27548511. Archived from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 23 December 2018.

• Marshall, Brian (2018). "Guilty as charged: Nile perch was the cause of the haplochromine decline in Lake Victoria". Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences. 75 (9). Canadian Science Publishing : 1542–1559. doi:10.1139/cjfas-2017-0056. ISSN 0706-652X. Retrieved 31 December 2025.

• McKenna, Amy; et al. (2025). "Blue Nile River". Britannica. Retrieved 31 December 2025.

• Ranjan, Amit (2 January 2024). "Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Dispute: Implications, Negotiations, and Mediations". Journal of Contemporary African Studies. 42 (1): 18–36. doi:10.1080/02589001.2023.2287425. ISSN 0258-9001.

• Roussi, Antoaneta (23 July 2020). "Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists". Nature. 583 (7817): 501–502. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-02124-8. ISSN 0028-0836.

• Senay, Gabriel; et al. (2014). "Understanding the Hydrologic Surces and Sinks in the Nile Basin Using Multisource Climate and Remote Sensing Data Sets". Water Resources Research. 50 (11). American Geophysical Union: 8625–8650. Bibcode:2014WRR....50.8625S. doi:10.1002/2013WR015231. ISSN 1944-7973. Retrieved 23 December 2025.

• Soliman, A.; et al. (2006). "Environmental Contamination and Toxicology: Geographical Clustering of Pancreatic Cancers in the Northeast Nile Delta Region of Egypt". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 51 (1). Springer Science+Business Media: 142–148. doi:10.1007/s00244-005-0154-0. hdl:2027.42/48088. ISSN 1432-0703. PMID 16453066. Retrieved 31 December 2025.

• Waslekar, Sundeep (2009). "Blue Peace for the Nile" (PDF). Strategic Foresight Group. Retrieved 20 January 2026.

• Wedajo, O. A.; et al. (2024). "A review of hydroclimate variability and changes in the Blue Nile Basin". Heliyon. 10 (3) e25530. Cell Press. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25530. ISSN 2405-8440. PMC 10847645. PMID 38327459.

Unknown author

• "Baḥr al-Ghazāl". Britannica. 2025. Retrieved 7 January 2026.

• "Colossal". The Concise Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2001. p. 282. ISBN 0198604386. Retrieved 27 December 2025.

• "Nile". Vatican Museum. Retrieved 14 January 2026.

• "Nile Basin National Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report for Egypt". Nile Basin Initiative. 2005. Retrieved 31 December 2025.

• "Personification of the River Nile". Yale Peabody Museum. Retrieved 14 January 2026.

• "The Nile Basin Trust Fund". World Bank Group. 14 January 2016. Retrieved 20 January 2026.

• Water Accounting in the Nile River Basin. Food and Agriculture Organization - United Nations. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca9895en. ISBN 978-92-5-132982-5. Retrieved 11 December 2025.