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Rutaceae

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Rutaceae
Skimmia japonica
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Juss., 1789[1]
Subfamilies
Diversity
About 160 genera, totaling over 1600 species
Range of subfamily Rutoideae sensu Groppo et al., 2012
Range of subfamily Cneoroideae

The Rutaceae (/ruːˈteɪsiˌaɪ, -siːˌiː/) is a family, commonly known as the rue[3] or citrus family,[4] of flowering plants, usually placed in the order Sapindales.

Species of the family generally have flowers that divide into four or five parts, usually with strong scents. They range in form and size from herbs to shrubs and large[5] trees.

The most economically important genus in the family is Citrus, which includes the orange (C. × sinensis), lemon (C. × limon), grapefruit (C. × paradisi), and lime (various). Boronia is a large Australian genus, some members of which are plants with highly fragrant flowers and are used in commercial oil production. Other large genera include Zanthoxylum, several species of which are cultivated for Sichuan pepper, Melicope, and Agathosma. The family Rutaceae contains about 160 genera.

Characteristics

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Members of the Rutaceae are mainly woody plants, with a few herbs. They give off a citrus smell when crushed or their bark is slashed. Many of them have compound leaves; some have thorns; none have stipules. There are clear (pellucid) glands appearing as dots or pits on leaves, flowers, and fruits. The flowers are bisexual (containing both male and female parts), have flower parts in fives, and are arranged in inflorescences such as cymes or panicles. The fruits are often hesperidiums as in Citrus, capsules as in Raputiarana, or drupes as in Acronychia; many of these have glands in the outer rind.[6]

Evolution

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Taxonomic history

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The Rutaceae was described by the French botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in his 1789 book Genera Plantarum.[7] "Rutaceae" remains the name in use (nomen conservandum) for the family as defined in the International Plant Names Index. The type genus is Ruta.[8]

In 1896, Engler published a division of the family Rutaceae into seven subfamilies.[9] One, Rhabdodendroideae, is no longer considered to belong to the Rutaceae, being treated as the segregate family Rhabdodendraceae, containing only the genus Rhabdodendron. Two monogeneric subfamilies, Dictyolomatoideae and Spathelioideae, are now included in the subfamily Cneoroideae, along with genera Engler placed in other families. The remaining four Engler subfamilies were Aurantioideae, Rutoideae, Flindersioideae and Toddalioideae. Engler's division into subfamilies largely relied on the characteristics of the fruit, as did others used until molecular phylogenetic methods were applied.[10]

Fossil history

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Zanthoxylum fossil from Southern France, of Tertiary age

Zanthoxylum fossils have been found in rocks from the Eocene to the Pleistocene in regions including Europe and South China.[11]

Phylogeny

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Molecular phylogeny shows that the Rutaceae is deeply nested within the Sapindales. It is sister to the Meliaceae (mahogany family); the clade containing those two families is in turn sister to the Simaroubaceae (quassia family). On that analysis, the Rutaceae emerged some 100 mya in the Upper Cretaceous.[12]

Molecular methods have shown that only Aurantioideae can be clearly differentiated from other members of the family based on fruit. They have not supported the circumscriptions of Engler's three other main subfamilies.[10] In 2012, Groppo et al. divided Rutaceae into only two subfamilies, retaining Cneoroideae but placing all the remaining genera in a greatly enlarged subfamily Rutoideae s.l.[2] A 2014 classification by Morton and Telmer also retained Engler's Aurantioideae, but split the remaining Rutoideae s.l. into a smaller Rutoideae and a much larger Amyridoideae s.l., containing most of Engler's Rutoideae.[13] Until 2021, molecular phylogenetic methods had only sampled between 20% and 40% of the genera of Rutaceae. A 2021 study by Appelhans et al. sampled almost 90% of the genera. The two main clades recognized by Groppo et al. in 2012 were upheld, but Morton and Telmer's Rutoideae was paraphyletic and their Amyridoideae was polyphyletic and did not include the type genus. Applehans et al. divided the family into six subfamilies, shown below in the cladogram produced in their study. The large subfamily Zanthoxyloideae was shown to contain distinct clades, but the authors considered that a revised classification at the tribal level was not yet feasible at the time their paper was published.[10]

Rutaceae

Cneoroideae (8 genera)

Rutoideae s.l.[2]

Rutoideae (5 genera)

Amyridoideae (3 genera)

Haplophylloideae (1 genus, Haplophyllum)

Aurantioideae (about 27 genera, inc. Citrus)

Zanthoxyloideae (about 110 genera)

Economically important species

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See also: List of Rutaceae genera and Citrus taxonomy
Various Citrus fruits

The family is of great economic importance in warm temperate and subtropical climates for its numerous edible fruits of the genus Citrus, such as the orange, lemon, calamansi, lime, kumquat, mandarin and grapefruit.[14]

Non-citrus fruits include the bael (Aegle marmelos).[15]

The curry tree, Murraya koenigii, is of culinary importance in the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere, as its leaves are used as a spice to flavour dishes.[16]

Spices are made from species in the genus Zanthoxylum, such as Sichuan pepper.[17]

Species such as Murraya[18] and Skimmia are grown in horticulture.[19]

Genera such as Ruta are used in herbalism.[20]

Several plants are used by the perfume industry, such as the Western Australian Boronia megastigma.[21]

The genus Pilocarpus has species (P. jaborandi, and P. microphyllus from Brazil, and P. pennatifolius from Paraguay) from which the medicine pilocarpine, used to treat glaucoma, has been extracted.[22]

References

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  1. ^ "Rutaceae Juss., nom. cons". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2003-01-17. Archived from the original on 2009-05-06. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
  2. ^ a b c Groppo, M.; Kallunki, J.A.; Pirani, J.R.; Antonelli, A. (2012). "Chilean Pitavia more closely related to Oceania and Old World Rutaceae than to Neotropical groups: Evidence from two cpDNA non-coding regions, with a new subfamilial classification of the family". PhytoKeys (19): 9–29. doi:10.3897/phytokeys.19.3912. PMC 3597001. PMID 23717188.
  3. ^ RUTACEAE in BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database
  4. ^ "Rutaceae (Citrus family) – 245 images at PlantSystematics.org images, phylogeny, nomenclature for (Rutaceae)". plantsystematics.org.
  5. ^ M. F. Porteners. "Flindersia schottiana, PlantNET - NSW Flora Online, Retrieved September 3rd, 2017".
  6. ^ Briggs, Marie. "Rutaceae Juss". Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Retrieved 4 May 2026.
  7. ^ Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de (1789). Genera plantarum: secundum ordines naturales disposita, juxta methodum in Horto regio parisiensi exaratam, anno M.DCC.LXXIV [Genera of Plants Arranged According to Their Natural Orders, Based on the Method Devised in the Royal Garden in Paris in the Year 1774] (in Latin). Paris. p. 296. OCLC 5161409.(translated into French, with revisions, in 1799 by Étienne Pierre Ventenat as Tableau du règne végétal selon la méthode de Jussieu.)
  8. ^ "Rutaceae Juss., Gen. Pl. [Jussieu] 296 (1789), nom. cons". IPNI. Retrieved 4 May 2026.
  9. ^ Engler, A. (1896). "Rutaceae". In Engler, A.; Prantl, K. (eds.). Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Vol. III(4). Leipzig: Engelmann.
  10. ^ a b c Appelhans, Marc S.; Bayly, Michael J.; Heslewood, Margaret M.; Groppo, Milton; Verboom, G. Anthony; Forster, Paul I.; Kallunki, Jacquelyn A.; Duretto, Marco F. (2021). "A new subfamily classification of the Citrus family (Rutaceae) based on six nuclear and plastid markers". Taxon. 70 (5): 1035–1061. doi:10.1002/tax.12543. hdl:11343/288824.
  11. ^ Xu, Shenglan; Zheng, Yuan; Song, Hanzhang; Huang, Luliang; Liu, Xiaoyan; Quan, Cheng; Jin, Jianhua; Wu, Xinkai (2026). "Evolutionary and phytogeographic insights into Zanthoxylum (Rutaceae) fossil seeds in South China from the Oligocene to Pleistocene". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 349: 105538. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2026.105538.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  12. ^ Joyce, Elizabeth M.; Appelhans, Marc S.; Buerki, Sven; Cheek, Martin; de Vos, Jurriaan M.; Pirani, José R.; et al. (7 March 2023). "Phylogenomic analyses of Sapindales support new family relationships, rapid Mid-Cretaceous Hothouse diversification, and heterogeneous histories of gene duplication". Frontiers in Plant Science. 14. doi:10.3389/fpls.2023.1063174. PMC 10028101. PMID 36959945.
  13. ^ Morton, Cynthia M.; Telmer, Cheryl (2014). "New Subfamily Classification for the Rutaceae". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 99 (4): 620–641. doi:10.3417/2010034. S2CID 85667129.
  14. ^ Ollitrault, Patrick; Curk, Franck; Krueger, Robert (2020). "Citrus taxonomy". In Talon, Manuel; Caruso, Marco; Gmitter, Frederick G. Jr. (eds.). The Citrus Genus. Elsevier. pp. 57–81. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-812163-4.00004-8. ISBN 978-0-12-812163-4. S2CID 242819146.
  15. ^ The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, United States Department of the Army. 2009. p. 23. ISBN 978-1493018642. OCLC 277203364.
  16. ^ The Culinary Institute of America (2011). The Professional Chef (9th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-470-42 135-2.
  17. ^ Peter, K. V. (2004). Handbook of Herbs and Spices. Vol. 2. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-1-85573-721-1.
  18. ^ But, P. P., et al. (1986). A chemotaxonomic study of Murraya (Rutaceae) in China. Acta Phytotax. Sin 24(3), 186-92.
  19. ^ "Skimmia japonica". Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 18 November 2025.
  20. ^ J. G. Vaughan; P. A. Judd (2003). The Oxford Book of Health Foods. Oxford University Press. p. 137. ISBN 0-19-850459-4.
  21. ^ Weyerstahl, P., H. Marschall, W.-R. Bork and R. Bilk (1994). "Megastigmanes and other constituents of the absolute of Boronia megastigma from Tasmania". Liebigs Annalen der Chemie 1043-1047.
  22. ^ Vardanyan, R. S.; Hruby, V. J. (2006). "Cholinomimetics". Synthesis of Essential Drugs. pp. 179–193. doi:10.1016/B978-044452166-8/50013-3. ISBN 978-0-444-52166-8.

Further reading

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  • Wikimedia Commons logo Media related to Rutaceae at Wikimedia Commons
  • Wikispecies logo Data related to Rutaceae at Wikispecies