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Pacific Rim

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For Pacific earthquake and volcanic activity, see Ring of Fire. For the film, see Pacific Rim (film). For other uses, see Pacific Rim (disambiguation).
Countries in blue border the Pacific Rim

The Pacific Rim comprises the lands around the rim of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Rim roughly overlaps with the geological Pacific Ring of Fire.

Definition

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The term "Pacific Basin" includes both the Pacific Rim and the islands in the Pacific Ocean, which are often ignored in Pacific Rim frameworks.[1][2] The "Pacific Basin" has also been used to exclusively refer to the islands in the Pacific Ocean (sometimes including Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, the Philippines and other large landmasses), but not the mainland rims of Asia and the Americas, which are separately referred to as the Pacific Rim under this framework.[3][4] The term "The Pacific" often takes on a similar meaning, with the mainland rims of Asia and the Americas being excluded, and other large landmasses sometimes being included depending on the context.[5] Some rare definitions of the Pacific Rim define it to exclude both the Asian and American mainlands and also the islands in the central Pacific. This defines the Pacific Rim as only including insular areas which are outside the main insular cultural zones of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, such as Australia, Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Aleutian Islands and the Galápagos Islands.[6]

The term "Asia Pacific" originated around the 1970s, and became a way to describe the Pacific Rim without including the Pacific coast of the Americas. It also sometimes includes landlocked Asian countries like Laos and South Asian countries like India who only border the Indian Ocean. Historically, the term "Indo-Pacific" has been used to refer to a tropical biogeographical region covering the entire Indian Ocean and sections of the western Pacific, including Northern Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia (excluding New Zealand), Southeast Asia and the part of East Asia south of the main Japanese islands.[7] In the 21st century, Indo-Pacific has increasingly been used to denote a geopolitical region. The broadest definition of the Indo-Pacific as a geopolitical region includes the entire Pacific Rim and Pacific Basin, as well as any country or island touching Indian Ocean waters. However, Indo-Pacific is often geopolitically used in a similar manner to the term Asia-Pacific, since it does not typically include Indian Ocean-adjacent parts of the Middle East and East Africa, in addition to not typically including the Pacific coast of the Americas.[8][9]

Organizations

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A national park in Canada's Vancouver Island was named after the Pacific Rim, while in mainland Vancouver, there is a hotel named Fairmont Pacific Rim.[10] Whidbey Island in the U.S. state of Washington also has an organization named the Pacific Rim Institute for Environmental Studies.[11] Various intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations focus on the Pacific Rim, including Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Association of Pacific Rim Universities, Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), the East-West Center, Sustainable Pacific Rim Cities,[12] the Pacific Basin Institute and the Institute of Asian Research. In addition, the RIMPAC naval exercises are coordinated by United States Pacific Command. Japan's Okinawa Pan-Pacific International Film Festival is a film festival exclusively dedicated to films from the 46 states in the Pacific Rim/Basin.[13][14]

APEC was co-founded by Australia and Japan in 1989, who since the 1970s had been working together on establishing other Pacific organizations. It had the title "Asia-Pacific" rather than "Pacific Rim" since it was originally envisioned to only include western Pacific countries who are in Asia or adjacent to Asia. However, Canada and the United States eventually became part of APEC's initial membership, and during the 1990s it expanded to include several Latin American countries bordering the Pacific.[15] APEC and the CPTPP are the two largest economic-based Pacific Rim organizations, although in 2024, the CPTPP admitted the United Kingdom as its first non-Pacific Rim member,[16] with other non-Pacific Rim countries like Argentina, Ukraine, Uruguay and the United Arab Emirates expressing interest in joining.[17] Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea are the only countries who are members of both APEC (an organization dedicated to large Pacific Rim countries) and the Pacific Islands Forum (an organization dedicated to smaller Pacific island countries).[18][19] Australia and New Zealand are also CPTPP members. The CPTPP is a legally binding free trade agreement, unlike APEC, which is based around general economic cooperation. The CPTPP was first signed in 2016 as the TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership), and included the United States but not China (who are both APEC members), as it was originally envisioned by Barack Obama's government as a way to counter Chinese economic influence by imposing a rules-based order. The TPP's direction shifted on January 23, 2017, when newly inaugurated U.S. President Donald Trump signed an executive order formally pulling the United States out of the deal.[20] Trump pulled out of the deal as part of his broader "America First" economic outlook, as he viewed the TPP as benefiting foreign countries at the expense of American workers. Following the American withdrawal, the remaining eleven members salvaged the initiative by signing the renamed CPTPP in March 2018, which officially entered into force in December 2018.

In April 2011, an organization called the Pacific Alliance was formed among Latin American Pacific Rim countries.[21] The Pacific Alliance currently has four full members: Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru. Costa Rica and Ecuador are pursuing full membership, while Singapore has become the first external country to obtain Associated State status. Other non-Latin American Pacific countries (Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and South Korea) are candidates for Associated State status, while countries such as Japan, China, and Indonesia participate only as observers, along with several countries outside the Pacific Rim. It is sometimes seen as a counterpart to the Mercosur trade agreement among Atlantic Latin American countries. However, the Pacific Alliance is generally more outward-looking toward Asia-Pacific trade and liberalisation, whereas Mercosur, founded in 1991 by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, has historically focused more heavily on South American regional integration and a common market.[22]

List of Pacific Rim institutions

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Political blocs and trade agreements

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Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
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Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP)
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Melanesian Spearhead Group (MSG)
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PACER Plus
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Pacific Alliance
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Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)
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Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA)
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Polynesian Leaders Group (PLG)
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United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA)

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Educational organizations

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Association of Pacific Rim Universities (APRU)
[edit]

Demographics

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China, Russia and the United States, often considered the world's three "superpowers", all have Pacific coastlines, although the majority of Russia's population lives significantly further away in the European-adjacent regions of the country.[23] Most Russians living near the Pacific coast and on the islands of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands are ethnic Russians of Caucasian origin, rather than indigenous natives like the Nivkhs.[24]

Among Pacific Rim states, Christianity is the dominant religion in Australia, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Guatemala, Honduras, Kiribati, Mexico, Nauru, New Caledonia, Nicaragua, Niue, Norfolk Island, Palau, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Russia, Samoa, the Cook Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands, the United States, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Wallis and Futuna.[25][26][AI-retrieved source][27] There is also a sizable Christian population in South Korea.[28] Orthodox Christianity is the least widespread form of Christianity in the Pacific Rim, mainly being prevalent in Russia and areas of Russia's former colony Alaska, such as the Aleutian Islands and Kodiak Island. Unalaska in the Aleutian Islands still has a Russian Orthodox church on the island, which was built during the era of Russian rule.[29] Kodiak Island also has Orthodox churches from the era of Russian rule.[30] Sunni islam is the main religion in Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia, and Muslims still make up a meaningful proportion of the Pacific Rim's total population, due to Indonesia's large population.[27] Buddhism is the primary religion in Cambodia, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand.[27] Religious unaffiliation is high in China, Hong Kong, Japan, New Zealand, North Korea and South Korea.[31][32]

When compared to the Atlantic Rim, the Pacific Rim has a significantly smaller population of African diaspora, with many of them living on the Pacific coast of the United States (particularly Southern California).[33] The Pacific coast of Latin America generally has less of an African-influence than the Caribbean coast of Latin America, although some areas such as Colombia have sizable African descended populations on the Pacific coast.[34][35] In recent decades, Australia has also experienced some African immigration, primarily from South Sudan and the Horn of Africa.[36] The term "the Black Pacific" has sometimes been used to historically frame African populations in Pacific coastal areas of Latin America (such as those in Colombia),[35] although the term "the Black Pacific" has also been used to refer to Melanesia and occasionally Indigenous Australia.[37][37][38][39]

Human settlements

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Human occupation across these regions predates European contact by thousands to tens of thousands of years. The East Asia and Southeast Asia areas were settled by modern Homo sapiens roughly 60,000–70,000 years ago,[40] Australia was reached by Aboriginal ancestors between 50,000 and 65,000 years ago[41] and the Americas were populated via Beringia and coastal routes approximately 15,000–30,000 years ago.[42] Most Pacific islands were settled in two distinct phases; Near Oceania (Melanesia) was first reached 40,000–50,000 years ago, while Remote Oceania (Micronesia, Polynesia, and New Zealand) was settled by Austronesian seafarers between 3,500 and 700 years ago, with New Zealand being the last settlement.[43] Following European exploration and initial contact between the 15th and 17th centuries, the Americas, Australia and New Zealand developed overwhelmingly European-settler majority populations. Between 1800 and 1925 alone, approximately 48 million European emigrants moved to the Americas, Australia and New Zealand.[44] Conversely, mainland and island Asia, as well as Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, largely retained their original demographic makeup. Russia is an exception, and the Russian Far East is one of the only areas on the western side of the Pacific with a European-majority population, along with Australia and New Zealand.[24]

Various islands in the Pacific Rim remain uninhabited by civilians. Many of these islands are in the eastern Pacific and have no indigenous populations, such as France's Clipperton Island, Costa Rica's Cocos Island, Chile's Desventuradas Islands and Mexico's Revillagigedo Islands. Several U.S. islands in the central Pacific are also uninhabited by civilians, including Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island. Most of the Aleutian Islands at the far western end of the chain have been uninhabited since the 18th, 19th or early 20th centuries, like Amchitka Island, Attu Island and Kiska, although these lands were historically inhabited by the Aleut people. During World War II, Japan briefly invaded the Aleutian Islands, including Attu, which had the last civilian population left at the far western end of the chain. Since then, nearly the entire western end of the chain has been uninhabited. Shemya Island was an exception to the postwar depopulation of the far western Aleutians, remaining one of the few islands in the region with a non-civilian human population after World War II, largely because of its continued military use. The island was developed as a U.S. Army air base in 1943 during the Aleutian Islands campaign, and after the war it was retained as a military installation because of its strategic position on the Great Circle Route between North America and Asia.[45] During the Cold War, Shemya became an important U.S. military and intelligence outpost, hosting facilities for missile and space surveillance and strategic reconnaissance operations because of its proximity to the Soviet Union.[46] With the end of the Cold War, however, military activity on the island declined substantially; the installation was placed on caretaker status in 1995, greatly reducing the number of military personnel stationed there, although a small permanent population remained to operate and maintain the facilities.[47][48]

Clipperton Island is a highly isolated atoll in the same general eastern Pacific area as Ecuador's populated Galápagos Islands. Unlike Galápagos, it has almost no natural freshwater supply suitable for sustaining a permanent population and little arable land, making habitation exceptionally difficult.[49] Its geographic location subsequently led to a sovereignty dispute between France and Mexico; Mexico, whose Pacific coast is the nearest American mainland to Clipperton at roughly 1,100–1,300 km away, established a human settlement there in the early 20th century in an effort to reinforce its claim. The settlement depended on regular supplies from Acapulco, but the Mexican Revolution disrupted those shipments, leaving the inhabitants increasingly without food or other necessities. Most died from scurvy, malnutrition and related issues, and the remaining community endured a catastrophic breakdown of social order, with some being murdered. The survivors were rescued by the USS Yorktown in July 1917.[50][49][51] Afterward the island was abandoned as a permanent settlement, although the United States briefly used it during World War II. Clipperton has remained uninhabited since 1945, with subsequent human presence consisting principally of occasional French naval visits and scientific expeditions. France's sovereignty was ultimately confirmed by international arbitration in 1931.[52][53][54]

The Bonin Islands and Volcano Islands (currently part of Japan) were first recorded by Europeans in the 16th century as uninhabited islands. Their extreme isolation subsequently produced an unusually high level of endemism through long-term evolution of species that reached the islands by chance. In the Bonin Islands, around 40% of the vascular plants, 25% of the insects, and more than 90% of the land-snail species are endemic, leading to comparisons with the Galápagos Islands, which similarly were long uninhabited and developed high levels of endemism.[55] From 1830, however, the Bonin Islands developed a permanent settler population of diverse backgrounds, including Europeans, Americans, Hawaiians and people of other Pacific origins, before Japanese colonization expanded later in the 19th century; the resulting community developed a distinctive mixed cultural identity.[56][57] The more remote Volcano Islands only received a human population in 1887, through Japanese laborers. Iwo Jima, the southernmost of the Volcano Islands, later became a heavily fortified Japanese military position and in 1945 the site of the Battle of Iwo Jima, one of the most famous and costly battles of World War II.[58] Chile's Juan Fernández Islands and the Galápagos Islands were also discovered uninhabited in the 16th century, and these two locations developed settler populations drawn largely from the adjacent South American mainland, subsequently adopting the cultural and linguistic norms of their parent countries. Galápagos was incorporated into Ecuador in 1832 and later attracted settlers from mainland Ecuador, while permanent settlement in the Juan Fernández Islands developed under Chilean administration and was reinforced by Chilean settlers alongside immigrants from Europe.[59][60][61] In the 19th and 20th centuries, the governments of Chile and Ecuador also experimented with using the islands as prisons, due to their isolated geography.[59] Britain, France and Russia utilized Australia, New Caledonia and Sakhalin as prisons around this same time for similar reasons.[62]

The Pitcairn Islands and Australia's Norfolk Island were both settled by Europeans after being discovered uninhabited, but each had evidence of earlier Polynesian activity. On Pitcairn, early European visitors found numerous Polynesian artefacts, including stone adzes, religious carvings, burial sites and earth ovens, indicating an earlier settlement whose precise date and origins remain uncertain; Pitcarn was later permanently settled in 1790 by the mixed Anglo-Tahitian community descended from the British Bounty mutineers.[63] Norfolk Island likewise preserves clear archaeological evidence of a previous Polynesian settlement, particularly at Emily Bay, dated broadly to about AD 1150–1450 or the 13th–15th centuries, before the island was found uninhabited by Europeans in 1774 and colonized by Britain in 1788.[64][65] Australia's Lord Howe Island, on the other hand, is notably different, since extensive archaeological investigation has found no evidence of prehistoric activity from Polynesians or any other humans before European arrival. The island's first known European sighting was in 1788; permanent settlement followed in 1834.[66][67]

Population distribution

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Mainland Australia is overwhelmingly coastal in terms of population: about 87% of Australia's mainland population lived within 50 kilometres of the coast in 2019. Its largest population concentrations are on the eastern and southeastern seaboard, facing the Pacific, while Perth and Adelaide are the only other major population centers outside this broad eastern concentration. Inland settlement remains comparatively sparse, with Alice Springs being the best-known major inland center, serving as a regional administrative, transport and services hub despite its location in the extremely dry central Australian interior.[68][69][70]

Canada displays a comparable concentration of population in its more temperate southern regions, particularly near the United States–Canada border. Nearly two-thirds of Canadians lived within 100 kilometers of the United States border in the 2006 census, while the interior and north are much more sparsely populated. Fertile agricultural land, transportation networks and a milder climate encouraged settlement in the south, whereas large areas of the Canadian Shield have thin or nutrient-poor soils, and the northern landscape presents additional difficulties from extreme cold, permafrost and limited infrastructure.[71][72][73] Whitehorse, in the Yukon interior, demonstrates that substantial urban settlement is nevertheless possible in Canada's north: it has become the territory's dominant population center and regional service hub despite a dry subarctic climate with very cold winters, in a role that is broadly comparable to Alice Springs in central Australia.[74]

In the 21st century, the private Century Initiative has advocated increasing Canada's population to 100 million by 2100, with the principal population growth envisaged in already-populated urban and economic regions rather than throughout the country; the Government of Canada has explicitly stated that the 100 million figure is not government policy.[75][76] At the same time, Canada's Arctic sea ice has declined substantially and the ice-free season is projected to lengthen further with global warming, potentially improving seasonal marine access to parts of the north. This could make a larger share of Canada's territory more economically accessible over the long term.[77][78]

China was the world's most populous country until India overtook it in 2023. From the late 1970s, China implemented the one-child policy to slow rapid population growth, later easing it to a two-child policy in 2016 and a three-child policy in 2021. As China's birth rate and number of women of childbearing age have declined, government policy has increasingly shifted from restricting births toward encouraging them, including measures intended to reduce the costs of raising children.[79][80][81]

Migration between Pacific Rim countries

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Migration among Pacific Rim countries has often been shaped by war, political upheaval and economic opportunity. The Vietnam War and its aftermath produced major Vietnamese refugee movements across the Pacific, with communities eventually established in countries such as the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia; Australia, for example, had about 318,760 Vietnamese-born residents by 2024. Many Cambodians fleeing the Khmer Rouge initially sought refuge in Southeast Asian countries before many were resettled elsewhere in the Pacific Rim.[82][83][84] Migration from Mexico and Central America to the United States has likewise been substantial, driven by a mixture of economic pressures, violence, political instability and family networks; Mexico has long been the principal country of origin for migrants entering the United States, while refugees and asylum seekers from El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras have also travelled north through Mexico toward the United States.[85][86] Mexico itself is a migration destination for asylum seekers from El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, with citizens from these countries often entering Mexico to escape crime and violence.[87][88] During the Salvadoran Civil War, roughly half a million Salvadorans sought refuge in the United States.[89] Australia also received refugees from El Salvador during this civil war, with about 10,000 accepted under its Special Humanitarian Program between 1983 and 1986. These Salvadorans and their descendants continue to live in Australia.[90][91]

Political repression following the 1973 Chilean coup under Augusto Pinochet produced another significant Pacific migration; Australian government records show that the Chilean-born population rose sharply after the coup, reaching 18,740 by 1981, while Canada received nearly 13,000 Chilean refugees between 1973 and 1978.[92][84] A notable example of climate-related migration is the Falepili Union between Australia and the Pacific island country Tuvalu, which is increasingly affected by rising sea levels. The Falepili Union established a special permanent-residency pathway allowing up to 280 Tuvaluans each year to live, work and study in Australia. In the first 2025 ballot, around 8,750 Tuvaluans (roughly 82% of Tuvalu’s population) were reported to have applied or been included in applications, demonstrating the strong demand for the pathway amid concerns over the effects of climate change.[93][94] Korean migration to Japan has a long history; large numbers of Koreans moved, or were compelled to move, to Japan during the period of Japanese colonial rule, creating the Zainichi Korean community. While many descendants have remained in Japan, the community has historically experienced discrimination, including restrictions on citizenship and employment and other forms of institutional and social discrimination.[95] Across the South Pacific, migration between Australia and New Zealand is particularly close because of the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement, but the flow has historically been much larger from New Zealand to Australia than in the opposite direction. The Australian government estimates about 670,000 New Zealand citizens live in Australia compared with around 75,000 Australians in New Zealand.[96]

Migration across the Pacific Ocean also links Australia and New Zealand with the United States and Canada, with movement typically occurring for employment, education, family, sport and cultural opportunities. Australia and the United States have particularly close people-to-people ties, reflected in the annual G'Day USA program, which promotes Australian business, tourism, culture and sport across the United States.[97] Migration and cultural exchange have produced notable sporting successes in both directions; Mason Cox, born in Texas, moved to Australia and became a professional Australian rules football player with the Collingwood Football Club, while numerous Australians have established careers in North American professional sports, including NBA players such as Josh Giddey, Patty Mills and Joe Ingles and NFL players including Jordan Mailata, Michael Dickson and Mitch Wishnowsky.[98][99][100]

Language

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Southeast Asia and mainland East Asia

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Brunei primarily uses Malay, with English and Chinese varieties also widespread, while Cambodia is predominantly Khmer speaking, alongside Indigenous languages such as Bunong, Jarai and Kuy.[101][102] China is dominated by Standard Chinese (Mandarin), but contains major regional varieties such as Cantonese, Wu, Min, Hakka and Xiang, as well as Indigenous and minority languages including Tibetan, Uyghur, Mongolian, Kazakh, Korean and Zhuang.[103] Hong Kong is predominantly Cantonese-speaking, with English and Standard Chinese also official languages, while Macau uses Cantonese, Portuguese and Mandarin.[104][105] Taiwan uses Mandarin together with Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka and numerous Indigenous Austronesian languages such as Amis, Atayal, Paiwan and Bunun.[106][107]

Malaysia uses Malay as the national language, with English, Chinese languages and Tamil also being spoken, alongside the numerous Indigenous languages of Borneo, including Iban and Kadazan-Dusun.[108] North Korea and South Korea are overwhelmingly Korean-speaking, although differing political terminology and orthographic conventions have developed on the two sides of the peninsula; South Korea also uses Korean Sign Language.[109] Russia includes Russian as the dominant language alongside numerous Indigenous and regional languages, such as those in its Far Eastern areas.[110] Singapore has four official languages—English, Malay, Mandarin Chinese and Tamil—while Singaporean multilingualism also includes numerous Chinese, South Asian and Southeast Asian languages.[111] Thailand is dominated by Thai but includes Isan, Northern Thai, Southern Thai, Malay, Karen languages and other minority languages.[112] Vietnam uses Vietnamese alongside numerous minority languages including Khmer, Hmong, Cham, Tày, Nùng and Jarai.[113] Spanish was once the official language of the Philippines, but now Filipino and English are the official languages, alongside numerous regional and Indigenous languages such as Cebuano, Ilocano and Hiligaynon.[114][115][59] Indonesia's main language is Indonesian but it also contains hundreds of regional languages, including Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, Balinese, Acehnese and the many languages of western New Guinea. Neighboring Timor-Leste uses Portuguese and Tetum, alongside Indonesian, English and numerous local languages including Mambai, Makasae and Fataluku.[116][117][118]

North Pacific and subarctic Pacific

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Japan is predominantly Japanese-speaking, with Korean, Chinese and other immigrant languages also present. Japan's Ryukyu Islands have historically spoken Ryukyuan languages, while Japan's northernmost island Hokkaido has historically spoken Ainu, with the Ainu language now being critically endangered on Hokkaido.[119] The Kuril Islands are predominantly Russian-speaking today, while Kuril Ainu was historically spoken there and is now extinct.[120][121] Sakhalin historically and currently has languages including Nivkh, Ainu (historically), Orok and Evenki, although Russian is now dominant.[122][123] On the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, Unangam Tunuu (Aleut) is the principal Indigenous language historically associated with the archipelago, with English now dominant.[123][124] The Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea have a long linguistic association with Unangam Tunuu (Aleut), particularly in the communities of St. Paul and St. George, although like on the Aleutian Islands, English is now dominant in everyday public life. The Pribilof variety has been documented as a distinct regional form of Unangam Tunuu.[125][126] Among other Alaskan Bering Sea islands, St. Lawrence Island is associated with Siberian Yupik, while the traditional language spoken on Nunivak Island is Cup'ig (also spelled Cup'ik), which is a distinct regional dialect of the Central Alaskan Yupʼik.[123][127] On Little Diomede Island in the Bering Strait, the local Indigenous language is Iñupiaq, specifically the Bering Strait variant, which is also spoken in nearby Bering Strait communities; English is now also widely used.[128]

Guam uses English and Chamorro, with Chamorro remaining the principal Indigenous language; Marshall Islands uses Marshallese and English; the Federated States of Micronesia uses English nationally alongside major state languages including Chuukese, Pohnpeian, Kosraean and Yapese; Northern Mariana Islands uses English, Chamorro and Carolinian and Palau uses Palauan and English, with Japanese historically influential.[129][130][131] Aside from Palau, other Micronesian islands were also historically influenced by the Japanese language in earlier colonial times. Japanese became an important language in areas like the Federated States of Micronesia and the Northern Marianas under Japanese rule in the early 20th century.[132] The Spanish language was used in administration and missionary work during the earlier Spanish colonial period of the Micronesia region.[59] Some Micronesian islands also had periods of German administration prior to Japan's expansion into the region in the early 20th century.[132] Hawaii is the only Polynesian island group in the North Pacific, and was originally predominantly Hawaiian-speaking, with Hawaiian serving as the principal language of government, education and everyday life during the Hawaiian Kingdom.[133] Following the overthrow of the monarchy in 1893 and U.S. annexation in 1898, English increasingly displaced Hawaiian, particularly after the 1896 Act 57 made English the medium and basis of instruction in schools.[134] At the same time, successive waves of migration brought languages including Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Korean and Filipino to the islands.[135][136]

South Pacific and eastern Pacific

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American Samoa and Samoa use Samoan and English, with Samoan the principal Indigenous language.[137] Australia is predominantly English-speaking but retains a large number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, including Pitjantjatjara, Warlpiri, Arrernte, Djambarrpuyngu, Tiwi and Yolŋu Matha, as well as Australian Kriol and Torres Strait Creole.[138][139] The Cook Islands use Cook Islands Māori and English, and Fiji has English, Fijian and Fiji Hindi as major languages, with Rotuman also spoken.[140][141] French Polynesia uses French alongside Tahitian and other Marquesan, Tuamotuan and Austral Island Polynesian varieties.[141][140] Kiribati uses Gilbertese (te taetae ni Kiribati) and English,[140] while Nauru uses Nauruan and English. Kiribati and Nauru are the only countries or territories in the South Pacific which speak languages from the Micronesian language family, with the rest all being located in the North Pacific, although Kiribati straddles the equator, and consequently has islands in both the North and South Pacific.[142][143]

New Caledonia uses French and a large number of Kanak languages, including Drehu, Nengone, Paicî, Ajië and Xârâcùù; New Zealand uses English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, with numerous Pacific languages spoken by migrant communities, while Niue uses Niuean and English.[140][144][145] Norfolk Island is predominantly English-speaking but has a distinctive Norf'k language.[146] The Pitcairn Islands similarly use English and the locally developed Pitkern language.[147] Papua New Guinea, which occupies the eastern half of New Guinea, is one of the world's most linguistically diverse countries. Tok Pisin, English and Hiri Motu are major official languages along with more than 800 Indigenous languages, including numerous Trans–New Guinea languages, Sepik, Austronesian and other language groups.[148][149] The Solomon Islands uses English officially but Solomon Islands Pijin is the principal lingua franca alongside numerous Indigenous languages.[150] Tokelau uses Tokelauan and English; Tonga uses Tongan and English; Tuvalu uses Tuvaluan and English while Vanuatu has three official languages—English, French and Bislama—as well as more than 100 Indigenous Oceanic languages.[140][151] Wallis and Futuna uses French alongside the Indigenous Polynesian languages Wallisian and Futunan.[152]

In the eastern Pacific, there are remote islands of volcanic origin which have no civilian populations but which still use Spanish as an official administrative language.[59][153] These include Chile's Desventuradas Islands and Salas y Gómez Island, Colombia's Malpelo Island, Costa Rica's Cocos Island and Mexico's Revillagigedo Islands.[59] The uninhabited Clipperton Island uses French as an official administrative language. Spanish was briefly spoken on Clipperton during Mexico's failed human settlement attempt in 1910–1917.[153] Among the inhabited eastern Pacific islands, the Galápagos Islands speak Spanish due to being part of Ecuador, while English is common in its tourism industry.[59][153] Historically, small immigrant communities from Europe have also spoken international languages on the islands, including settlers from Germany and Norway.[154] The principal civilian language in the Juan Fernández Islands is Spanish, reflecting its incorporation into Chile.[59] The traditional Polynesian language Rapa Nui has been preserved on Easter Island, although the Spanish language is also now common on the island, following its annexation by Chile in 1888.[59] The volcanic islands in the eastern Pacific belonging to Chile are below the equator, while nearly all of the Galapagos is below the equator. The others are above the equator.

Americas

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Canada has English and French as its federal official languages and dozens of Indigenous languages, including Cree, Inuktitut, Ojibwe, Dene, Innu, Mi'kmaq, Blackfoot, Mohawk and Nisga'a.[155][156] Chile and Colombia are predominantly Spanish-speaking but recognise or protect numerous Indigenous languages, including Mapudungun, Aymara, Rapa Nui, Quechua, Wayuu and Nasa Yuwe.[157][158] Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama are predominantly Spanish-speaking but contain numerous Indigenous languages, particularly Mayan languages and Nahuatl in Mexico and Central America, and Kichwa, Shuar, Quechua and other Indigenous languages in Ecuador.[159][160][161][162] Peru is predominantly Spanish-speaking but also officially recognises Indigenous languages in the areas where they predominate, especially Quechua, Aymara and numerous Amazonian languages.[163] The United States uses English nationally in practice, with Spanish also widely spoken. It also has numerous Native American, Alaskan and Pacific languages, including Hawaiian and the other Indigenous languages in its Pacific territories.[59]

Geography and zoology

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15 fully independent nations in the Pacific Rim have no land borders to other countries; Australia, Fiji, Japan, Kiribati, Nauru, New Zealand, Palau, Samoa, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.[164] Aside from Samoa and Tonga, all of these nations are in the Eastern Hemisphere, with Fiji, Kiribati and New Zealand having land in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Brunei, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Timor-Leste are considered divided island countries due to having land borders, while Singapore naturally has no land borders, but is connected to Malaysia through a man-made bridge and causeway. Taiwan also has no land borders but its sovereignty is disputed. Geographically, South Korea is a non-insular country located in mainland Asia, but geopolitically, it is often regarded as functionally being an island country. This is because South Korea only has a single, heavily restricted land border with North Korea, which effectively leaves it cut off from the rest of mainland Asia.[165]

The smallest country in the Pacific Rim is Nauru, while the largest is Russia. The largest country which only borders Pacific waters is China. Some of the furthest cities from the Pacific Ocean which technically belong to Pacific Rim countries include the European Russian city of Kaliningrad, Ürümqi in western China (one of the most inland cities in the world), the U.S. city of Portland in the eastern state of Maine, and the Canadian city of St. John's in the eastern province of Newfoundland and Labrador.[166]

Polar-adjacent lands in the Pacific Rim receive animal populations from the Antarctic and Arctic, including Australia's Macquarie Island in the far South Pacific, which has a large penguin population, and Alaska's St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea, which occasionally receives polar bears wandering from the north.[167]

Economy

[edit]

The economies of East Asia are among the most industrialized and internationally integrated economies in the Pacific Rim. Taiwan and South Korea are major centers of semiconductor manufacturing, while Japan and China have large automotive, machinery and electronics industries, as well as other manufacturing industries.[168] Hong Kong is an international financial and commercial center.[169] Macau's economy is heavily dependent on tourism and gaming.[170] North Korea has a substantially different economic structure from other Asian countries. Its economy remains dominated by state ownership and central planning, with mining, agriculture, and military-related production occupying important roles.[171] In recent years, North Korea has sought to build a tourism industry, as highlighted by the 2025 opening of the Wonsan-Kalma Coastal Tourist Zone, a sprawling multi-billion-dollar beach resort located on the country's eastern coast in Wonsan.[172]

Australia, Canada, and the Russian Far East are sparsely populated areas and have economies in which natural resources play a significant role. Australia is a major exporter of iron ore, coal, natural gas, and other minerals. The country also has a mature tourism industry, primarily centered around the three east coast states of New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria.[173][174] Canada has substantial energy, mining, forestry, and agricultural industries. The Russian Far East has economies centered on oil and gas, coal, fisheries, timber, and mineral resources. Russia's Sakhalin possesses substantial reserves of oil, natural gas, coal, and other mineral resources, as well as important fisheries and forest resources. The geographic proximity of Sakhalin to Japan has historically made its oil and gas resources particularly significant to Japanese energy security. The Sakhalin-1 and Sakhalin-2 projects were developed partly with Japanese participation and became sources of crude oil and LNG for the Japanese market.[175][176] Australia's proximity to Japan relative to many other resource-producing regions also makes it an important component of Japan's energy supply network.[177]

Southeast Asia contains a diverse group of manufacturing, resource, and service economies. Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam have developed significant manufacturing industries, including electronics, automotive production, textiles, and other export-oriented industries.[178][179] Singapore is a major center for finance, shipping, logistics, and advanced manufacturing, while Brunei and Timor-Leste remain more dependent on petroleum revenues. Cambodia has developed a large garment and footwear industry.[180] Tourism is another important part of several Southeast Asian economies. Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and Vietnam in particular receive large numbers of international visitors, with destinations such as Bali and Bangkok supporting extensive tourism industries.[181]

Mexico is the largest Latin American Pacific Rim economy, and has a sizeable manufacturing sector and is a major producer of automobiles, electronics, machinery, and other manufactured goods.[182][183] Chile and Peru are major producers of copper and other minerals, while agriculture, including coffee cultivation, remains important in several Central American economies.[184][185] Panama occupies a distinctive position because of the Panama Canal, which provides a major maritime link between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. A large share of canal traffic involves trade between the east coast of the United States and East Asia, making the canal an important part of Pacific trade networks as well as the Panamanian economy.[186] Tourism is significant across much of the Pacific coast of Latin America. Costa Rica has developed a substantial ecotourism industry and Ecuador's Galápagos Islands are an internationally recognized tourism destination, subject to extensive environmental regulation.[187] Chile's Easter Island is another Latin American destination closely associated with tourism and cultural heritage, along with Peru's Machu Pichu. Mexico's Acapulco on the Pacific coast was historically a prominent tourist destination, but its popularity has declined since the 2010s, due to rising gang violence.[188][189]

The United States has traditionally been the largest economy on the Pacific Rim and contains major economic centers along its Pacific coast, including Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay Area, San Diego, Seattle and Portland, Oregon. These centers are important in technology, finance, manufacturing, higher education, shipping, and entertainment and maintain extensive commercial links with East Asia and other Pacific economies.[190] The Hollywood film and television industry forms part of a wider Pacific Rim production network, with animation work often undertaken in Taiwan, the Philippines or South Korea (such as for The Simpsons, which has been animated in Seoul since the late 1980s).[191] Substantial filming and post-production activity occurs in Vancouver and other Pacific Rim cities, with Vancouver providing generous tax breaks to Hollywood productions.[192][193]

The economies of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia vary considerably in size and structure but commonly have small domestic markets and limited export bases. Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Samoa and other island economies receive substantial income from international tourism. Fisheries and development assistance are important sources of income in small Melanesian and Micronesian islands, which generally have less developed tourism industries than those in Polynesia.[194] Among larger Melanesian islands, New Caledonia has a significant nickel industry,[195][196] while Papua New Guinea has major mineral and liquefied natural gas exports.[197] Along with Fiji, New Caledonia has the most developed tourism sector in Melanesia, although it's more heavily reliant on attracting tourists from Australia, and is vulnerable to changes in Australian tourism habits.[198] New Zealand's export economy includes dairy products, meat, forestry products, and other agricultural commodities.[199] The Micronesian island of Nauru, formerly an Australian colony, had one of the highest GDP per Capitas in the world during the 1970s and 1980s, due to its phosphate industry, before eventually suffering an economic downturn. Before the economic downturn, Nauru was earning 70 times more than its island neighbors were.[200] Other countries in Micronesia, including the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands and Palau, have some of the lowest GDPs in the world. Since becoming independent countries, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands and Palau have had financial stability from a Compact of Free Association with the United States, while Kiribati relies heavily on aid from countries such as Australia and New Zealand.[201][202]

Currency

[edit]

The Pacific Rim has a diverse currency landscape, with most states issuing their own national currencies. There are also several countries and territories using, sharing, or pegging their currencies to those of larger economies. In North America, Canada uses the Canadian dollar, the United States uses the United States dollar and Mexico the Mexican peso. The Central American states of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua use the Costa Rican colón, Guatemalan quetzal, Honduran lempira and Nicaraguan córdoba respectively, while El Salvador uses the United States dollar as legal tender alongside its historically retained Salvadoran colón. Panama is another special case, using the balboa together with US dollar notes, with the balboa maintained at parity with the US dollar.[203] In South America, Chile uses the Chilean peso, Colombia the Colombian peso, Peru the Peruvian sol, while Ecuador uses the United States dollar as its official currency; this also applies to the Galápagos Islands, which are their own distinct political province of Ecuador.[204] Similarly, Easter Island uses the Chilean peso because it is part of Chile, rather than having a separate currency. In East Asia, China uses the renminbi (yuan), Japan the Japanese yen, South Korea the South Korean won, North Korea the North Korean won, and Taiwan the New Taiwan dollar. Hong Kong, although part of China, retains the Hong Kong dollar, which operates under a Linked Exchange Rate System pegged to the US dollar, while Macau uses the Macanese pataca, which is in turn linked closely to the Hong Kong dollar.[205] Russia uses the Russian ruble, while Southeast Asia has a particularly varied collection of currencies; Brunei uses the Brunei dollar, Cambodia the Cambodian riel with the US dollar also extensively used in the economy, Indonesia the Indonesian rupiah, Malaysia the Malaysian ringgit, the Philippines the Philippine peso, Singapore the Singapore dollar, Thailand the Thai baht, and Vietnam the Vietnamese đồng. Brunei is notable for its Currency Interchangeability Agreement with Singapore, under which Brunei and Singapore currencies are accepted and exchanged at par by their respective monetary authorities and banks, although each country retains its own currency.[206]

In the Pacific, Australia uses the Australian dollar, which is also the official currency of Kiribati, Nauru and Tuvalu.[207] New Zealand uses the New Zealand dollar, which is also an official currency of the semi-independent Polynesian states the Cook Islands, Niue and Tokelau, all of which are politically associated with New Zealand. The Pitcairn Islands also use the New Zealand dollar, despite being a British Overseas Territory.[208] Among other countries in the Pacific Ocean, Fiji uses the Fijian dollar, Samoa uses the Samoan tālā, the Solomon Islands use the Solomon Islands dollar, Tonga the Tongan paʻanga, Vanuatu the Vanuatu vatu, and Papua New Guinea the Papua New Guinean kina. Norfolk Island, an Australian external territory, uses the Australian dollar.[209] Several Pacific island states associated with the United States use the United States dollar rather than their own currencies. These include the independent nations of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, and the U.S. overseas territories of American Samoa, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands. Timor-Leste uses it independently of the United States; the Central Bank of Timor-Leste states that the US dollar is its official currency and legal tender, with national centavo coins issued as subdivisions of the dollar.[210] French Polynesia, New Caledonia and Wallis and Futuna form another shared currency area, using the CFP franc, issued by the Institut d'émission d'outre-mer and serving as legal tender in all three of these French Pacific territories.[211] Clipperton Island is under the direct authority of the French Government, and if it had a human population, then it would theoretically use a French currency. From 1936 to 2007, it was administratively attached to French Oceania (later renamed French Polynesia), before the French government placed Clipperton under direct administration.[212][213]

In media

[edit]

In 1989, an Australian miniseries titled Man on the Rim: The Peopling of the Pacific debuted, focusing on the human origins of the Pacific Rim, including the islands. The series also had a book counterpart released, and was hosted by doctor Alan Thorne from the National University of Australia.[214][215] In 1997, a British miniseries titled Full Circle premiered, hosted by Michael Palin. For the series, Palin traveled across many of the countries on the Pacific Rim, visiting Australia, Bolivia (which is landlocked but used to have Pacific access), Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, the Philippines, Russia, South Korea, the United States and Vietnam. Palin also visited some of the outlying islands of these countries, including Chile's Chiloé Island and Juan Fernández Islands, and Kodiak Island and Little Diomede Island, which are part of Alaska. Little Diomede Island was chosen as a location due to being the northernmost point of the Pacific Basin, as it is situated on the Bering Strait connecting Pacific waters to Arctic waters. For the show, Palin was also additionally going to visit Attu Island in the Aleutian Islands, but he was unable to. Palin was also unable to enter North Korea as he had originally planned.[216]

Chronology of European exploration in the Pacific Rim

[edit]

List of countries on the Pacific Rim

[edit]

This is a list of countries that are generally considered to be a part of the Pacific Rim or Pacific Basin, since they lie along the Pacific Ocean.[381]


Shipping

[edit]

The Pacific has much international shipping. The top 10 busiest container ports, with the exception of Dubai's Port of Jebel Ali (9th), are in the Rim nations. They are home to 29 of the world's 50 busiest container shipping ports:


See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
1. ^ Non-Pacific Rim state.
2. ^ No known human activity before European discovery.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Clausen, A. W. The Pacific Asian Countries: A Force For Growth in the Global Economy. Los Angeles: World Affairs Council, 1984. ED 244 852.
  • Cleveland, Harlan. The Future of the Pacific Basin: A Keynote Address. New Zealand: Conference on New Zealand's Prospects in the Pacific Region, 1983.
  • Gibney, Frank B., Ed. Whole Pacific Catalog. Los Angeles, CA: 1981.
  • "The Pacific Basin Alliances, Trade and Bases." GREAT DECISIONS 1987. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1987. ED 283 743.
  • Palin, Michael (1997). Full Circle. BBC Books. ISBN 0-563-37121-8.. A travelogue of a complete journey around the Pacific Rim accompanying the 1997 TV series Full Circle with Michael Palin.
  • Rogers, Theodore S., and Robert L. Snakenber. "Language Studies in the Schools: A Pacific Prospect." EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES 21 (1982): 12–15.
  • Wedemeyer, Dan J., and Anthony J. Pennings, Eds. Telecommunications—Asia, Americas, Pacific: PTC 86. "Evolution of the Digital Pacific." Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Pacific Telecommunications Council: Honolulu, Hawaii, 1986. ED 272 147.
  • West, Philip, and Thomas Jackson. The Pacific Rim and the Bottom Line. Bloomington, Indiana, 1987.

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Sources

[edit]
  • Phillips, Douglas A. and Steven C. Levi. The Pacific Rim Region: Emerging Giant. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1988. ISBN 0-89490-191-5